I submitted this paper for New Testament Introduction at Bob Jones University on February 6, 2002.
Today’s religious setting is in many ways like that of the time of Christ. The milieu of the New Testament was colorfully arrayed with many different religious and political groups that influenced and shaped the church of Christ and the apostles. Most of these groups stemmed from Old Testament Judaism, giving opportunity for the heart of the Christian faith to be brought to light by the corrective teaching of Christ and the apostles. An understanding of the history and beliefs of each of these groups will aid in a fuller knowledge of the New Testament Scriptures and the early development of Christianity.
Probably the most familiar and recognized religious group of Jesus’ day was the Pharisees. The number of sources containing valuable historical data on the Pharisees is quite limited, the primary sources being the New Testament and the writings of Josephus.1 The New Testament mentions them one hundred times, most of which are negative in nature. The dates that are usually accepted for the Pharisees are 2nd century b.c. – 1st century a.d.2 This group originated during the inter-testamental period. According to some, their name is derived from a word meaning “to separate,”3 but this is not universally accepted.
The most distinctive characteristic of the Pharisees was their stringent interpretation and observance of the Law, especially the laws of purity. After contact with certain unclean things, they would bathe as a sign of their spirituality.4 They seemed at times to equate outward cleanliness with inward holiness. Jesus often chided them for their external focus and neglect of the inner man (e.g., Matthew 23:23–28). The Pharisees’ observance of the law, however, was not simply an adherence to the written revelation of God. Jesus rebuked the Pharisees strongly for requiring people to follow their traditions (e.g., Matthew 15:1–9). There was also sharp dissension between the Pharisees and Jesus concerning the Sabbath, especially Jesus’ healing on the Sabbath (e.g., John 5:1–18). Another aspect of the Pharisees theology was a high view of divine determinism.5 They also maintained a belief in a future resurrection.6
The influence of the Pharisees upon the early church was quite significant. They were quite influential among the common people. Acts 15 is a prime example of their influence on the church. Verse 5 says that some of the Pharisees believed in Christ. But because of the Pharisees’ strict observance of the Law and their traditions, they wanted to require circumcision and obedience to the Law as necessary for salvation. The matter was one of great contention in the early church, but one that was dealt with very thoroughly in the Jerusalem council and the Epistle of Paul to the Galatians. Because of these emphases of the Pharisees came many opportunities for clarifying that at the core, religion that pleases God is an internal heart religion.
A second group of importance during the New Testament times was the Sadducees, who date from the 2nd century b.c. to the 1st century a.d.7 This group is not given near the amount of attention in the New Testament as the Pharisees.8 Unlike the Pharisees, the Sadducees were a priestly group (e.g., Acts 5:17), claiming to be descendents of the priest Zadok.9 Because of their priestly associations, they were in charge of the temple worship. And due to this close connection with the temple, they basically disappeared from historical records after the destruction of the temple in a.d. 70.10 The Sadducees also made up the majority of the Sanhedrin and the aristocracy.11
The Sadducees had a distinct doctrinal position from the Pharisees, a fact that led to their frequent debates (e.g., Acts 23:6–10). One such area was their view that only the Scripture (especially the Torah, which received a place of superiority to the rest of the Old Testament) was binding, and not the traditions passed down by men.12 Other significant differences include their rejection of a resurrection (e.g., Matthew 22:23–33) and of angels. They also abandoned any form of determinism, exalting human free choice as the supreme determiner.
An understanding of their belief system sheds light on why there was such a strong divergence between the Sadducees and the other New Testament groups. Because they viewed themselves as the keepers of the temple and the old Jewish system, especially as it was presented in the Pentateuch, the Pharisees and the Christians were not tolerated.
The Samaritans
Another New Testament group that was very significant in the time of Christ and the apostles was the Samaritans. They claimed to be descendants of Ephraim and Manasseh. According to their own writings and teachings, they thought themselves to be the true preservers of the Old Testament religion, not the Jews.13 According to Josephus, their origin stems from the Assyrian defeat in 722 b.c. (e.g., 2 Kings 17).14 Some see Ezra 4 as a reference to the Samaritans, although this is not clear. The Elephantine papyri of the 5th century b.c. do however clearly refer to the Samaritans.15
Concerning the creed of the Samaritans, their form of the Torah gives the foundation for their differing belief system. For them the Pentateuch is the only canonical and authoritative Scripture of the Old Testament. Their Pentateuch, however, differs quite sharply from the MT in a number of ways. Apparently, they modified it by inserting certain theological distinctives (although they would claim otherwise). One of the most notable instances is the change of the place of worship from Jerusalem to Mt. Gerizim (e.g., see the 10th Commandment in the Samaritan Pentateuch and John 4:20).16 Other differences that reflect their theology include their removal of anthropomorphic language, which is replaced by the insertion of an angel of the Lord, and their change of the Hebrew אֱלֹהִים to the singular.17
The dissension that existed between the Jews and the Samaritans is quite apparent in John 4, Jesus’ encounter with the Samaritan woman at the well. An understanding of this long standing animosity helps to clarify why the woman was shocked by the fact that Jesus approached her and talked with her, and the significance of such an action for a Jewish man.
The Scribes
The Scribes are another group that appear quite frequently in the gospel accounts of Jesus and His ministry.18 They have deep roots in the Old Testament as educated people who could read and write, and who would keep records of various kinds—governmental, financial, legal, and military.19 The word scribe comes from the Hebrew word סֹפֵר, which means, “to count,” “to take account of,” and thus “to write.” The term eventually narrowed in its usage to refer primarily to one who copied and interpreted the Torah.20
By Jesus’ day, the Scribes were well known as an intellectual group who specialized in the interpretation of the Law (e.g., 1 Corinthians 1:20). But the majority of the time, they were characterized in a negative light. They appear to be similar to the Pharisees, often occurring in connection with them.21 In common with the Pharisees was the tendency of the Scribes to broaden and exalt the application of the Law.22 According to some, the Scribes were nothing more than a specialized group of the Pharisees.23
The significance of the Scribes basically falls in the same category of the Pharisees, they being so closely related. An understanding of their errors sheds light on Jesus’ harsh accusations and condemnations.
CONCLUSION
Knowledge concerning the history and beliefs of each of these groups will assist in giving a fuller comprehension of the New Testament Scriptures and the early development of Christianity. These most significant groups, among many others,24 set the cultural and religious milieu of the days of Jesus and the apostles. This tendency for division and sectarianism, which was quite evident in the time around the early church, has continued to the present. Learning the peculiarities of each of these various groups can be instructive regarding how fallen man is inclined to focus on externals and establish his own righteousness before God. Every believer can profit from such study and should avail himself of these many resources as he seeks to know the Scriptures better.
Anderson, Robert T. “Samaritans.” Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, edited by David Noel Freedman. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2000.
Goranson, Stephen. “Essenes.” Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, edited by David Noel Freedman. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2000.
Kaufman, Reuben. Great Sects and Schisms in Judaism. New York: Jonathan David Publishers, 1967.
Mason, Steve. “Pharisees.” Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, edited by David Noel Freedman. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2000.
________. “Sadducees.” Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, edited by David Noel Freedman. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2000.
Muirhead, Lewis A. The Times of Christ. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1907.
Paffenroth, Kim. “Scribes.” Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, edited by David Noel Freedman. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2000.
Roetzel, C. The World that Shaped the New Testament. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1985.
Rogers, Jeffrey S. “Samaritan Pentateuch.” Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, edited by David Noel Freedman. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2000.
Saldarini, Anthony J. “Sanhedrin.” Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, edited by David Noel Freedman. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2000.
Stambaugh, John E., and David L. Balch. The New Testament in Its Social Environment. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1986.
Notes
1. Steve Mason, “Pharisees,” Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, ed. David Noel Freedman (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2000), 1043. ↩
2. Ibid. ↩
3. Lewis A. Muirhead, The Times of Christ (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1907), 83. ↩
4. Calvin J. Roetzel, The World that Shaped the New Testament (Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1985), 25–26. ↩
5. Ibid. They maintained this not to the neglect of some sort of human responsibility. ↩
6. Acts 23:8 says, “For the Sadducees say that there is no resurrection, nor an angel, nor a spirit, but the Pharisees acknowledge them all.” ↩
7. Steve Mason, “Sadducees,” Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, ed. David Noel Freedman (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2000), 1150. ↩
8. The Pharisees are mentioned 100 times compared to only 14 times for the Sadducees. ↩
9. Roetzel, 29. The Greek word for Sadducees is Σαδδουκαῖοι, while the Greek word for Zadok is Σαδδουκ or Σαδώκ. Another position, supported by Edersheim, is that it is derived from the Hebrew word צדִּיק;. Most, however, do not follow this opinion. See Lewis A. Muirhead, The Times of Christ (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1907), 73, n. 2. For additional options concerning the origin of the Sadducees see Reuben Kaufman, Great Sects and Schisms in Judaism (New York: Jonathan David Publishers, 1967), 24–26. ↩
10. Ibid., 31. ↩
11. Ibid., 30. ↩
12. Ibid. ↩
13. Robert T. Anderson, “Samaritans,” Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, ed. David Noel Freedman (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2000), 1159. ↩
14. Ibid. After the Northern tribes fell to the Assyrians, intermarriage took place resulting in a group of rebels politically and half-breeds racially. These events began this long lasting animosity. ↩
15. Ibid. ↩
16. Jeffrey S. Rogers, “Samaritan Pentateuch,” Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, ed. David Noel Freedman (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2000), 1159. ↩
17. Ibid., 1159–60. ↩
18. The word occurs 115 times in the Scriptures, 63 of which are in the NT. All of the occurrences are primarily in the Matthew through Luke—only 4 being in John and Acts. ↩
19. Kim Paffenroth, “Scribes,” Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, ed. David Noel Freedman (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2000), 1173. ↩
20. Ibid. ↩
21. Some twenty-two times in the Gospels and Acts the Pharisees and Scribes are referred to together. ↩
22. Ibid. ↩
23. Muirhead, 85. ↩
24. Other groups include the Herodians, Essenes, High Priests, Scribes, Sophists, Judaizers, Sanhedrin, Rabbi, Elders, Publicans, and Zealots. ↩