While the tide is slowly turning, many modern scholars and pastors still reject what the late Michael S. Heiser popularized as the divine council worldview (DCW). But it’s not entirely clear to me which claims they find controversial or difficult to accept, since it’s often accepted or rejected wholesale as a set of interconnected ideas. I suspect it’s mostly due to lack of familiarity, misunderstanding, or tribal loyalties—or perhaps a case of throwing out the baby with the bathwater (I don’t love his chapter on free will, either). I’d love to better understand the exegetical and theological objections, and I’m hoping to draw some of them out.
In this article, I aim to lay out what I believe are the major claims of the DCW in an attempt to demonstrate that they (a) aren’t built on fringe interpretations of one or two obscure, debated texts and (b) don’t require embracing 1 Enoch or borrowing ideas from religious texts of the ancient Near East. I attempt to demonstrate that the DCW is thoroughly biblical.
1. Yahweh, the uncreated and eternal triune creator, created other spirit beings who are properly called elohim, gods, or sons of God, which the broader canon identifies as angels.
This should be one of the most uncontroversial claims of the DCW, since Scripture directly teaches it in explicit texts—and implies it in dozens of others.
Yahweh is spirit (John 4:24), and he created other beings who are also spirits (Heb 1:14). While the creator–creature distinction is profound, Yahweh shares much in common with these heavenly beings—not least of which is being elohim, which in the general sense is simply a way of identifying a spirit being in contrast to a physical being.
Let’s take a look at the biblical data.
1.1. Yahweh created humans lower than gods = angels.
. . . what is mankind [אֱנ֥וֹשׁ; ἄνθρωπος] that you are mindful of them, human beings [וּבֶן־אָ֝דָ֗ם; υἱὸς ἀνθρώπου] that you care for them? 5 You have made them a little lower than the angels [מֵאֱלֹהִ֑ים; παρʼ ἀγγέλους] and crowned them with glory and honor.
Psalm 8:4–5
This text clearly represents a category of beings who are greater than humans and are properly called gods or elohim [אֱלֹהִ֑ים]. They are real spiritual beings, which the LXX translates interpretatively as angels or angelous [ἀγγέλους]. So when the Bible affirms the existence of other gods or other elohim, it’s simply affirming the existence of the spirit beings we usually call angels.
Now, I understand why some people don’t like to use the word god for spirit beings other than Yahweh, but we need not be afraid of or embarrassed by Scripture. Anyone who claims that Yahweh is the only elohim in this general sense is rejecting clear and unambiguous statements of Scripture. Rather than defending the Bible, they’re siding against the Bible with a mistaken and overloaded concept of what elohim always means. Even the disembodied spirit of Samuel is referred to as an elohim (1 Sam 28:13), making it clear that it means something less than the eternal, unique creator. An elohim in this general sense is a spirit who lives outside the earthly realm, which can include Yahweh, his angels, and human spirits.
1.2. Yahweh is incomparably higher than these gods = his heavenly sons.
The heavens praise your wonders, Lord, your faithfulness too, in the assembly of the holy ones [בִּקְהַ֥ל קְדֹשִֽׁים; ἐν ἐκκλησίᾳ ἁγίων]. 6 For who in the skies above can compare with the Lord? Who is like the Lord among the heavenly beings [בִּבְנֵ֥י אֵלִֽים; ἐν υἱοῖς θεοῦ]? 7 In the council of the holy ones [בְּסוֹד־קְדֹשִׁ֣ים; βουλῇ ἁγίων] God is greatly feared; he is more awesome than all who surround him.
Psalm 89:5–7
According to the psalmist, there are real beings who live in heaven who are called sons of God, his assembly, his council, or his holy ones. These beings surround him, and cannot compare to him in greatness. These seem to be the same beings that Scripture elsewhere calls gods (elohim)—a connection made explicitly in Psalm 82:6 (“You are gods [אֱלֹהִ֣ים; Θεοί]; you are all sons of the Most High [וּבְנֵ֖י עֶלְי֣וֹן כֻּלְּכֶֽם; υἱοὶ ὑψίστου πάντες]”). These angelic beings really exist, and they’re called by many different names in Scripture.
Putting Psalm 8 and 89 together we have a very clear hierarchy:
- Yahweh, the triune uncreated creator of all, sits incomparably at the top.
- His created heavenly sons, who are lesser elohim, angels, his assembly, his council, or his holy ones sit infinitely below him.
- His created human sons sit even lower than these lesser elohim (for now).
This theme of Yahweh’s incomparability to the other gods permeates the Old Testament (Exod 15:11; 18:11; Deut 10:17; 1 Kings 8:23; 2 Chron 2:5; Ps 82:1; 86:8; 95:3; 96:4–5; 97:9; 135:5; 136:2–3; Dan 2:47). If these gods don’t exist, these statements become meaningless. Saying Yahweh is greater than non-existent beings is an insult, not praise. Proclaiming Yahweh’s greatness far above all the powerful created beings in the spiritual realm is worship.
Paul acknowledged the existence of these gods (1 Cor 8:4–6; 2 Cor 4:4), while at the same time affirming that there is a sense in which they aren’t gods at all (Gal 4:8; cf. 1 Cor 10:19–20). This dual-sense of the Greek word for god, theos (θεός) also runs all throughout the Old Testament with the Hebrew word for god, elohim (אֱלֹהִים). In the general sense, there are without a doubt many gods (i.e., spirit beings in the heavenly realm), while in the special sense, there is only one God (i.e., triune, uncreated, eternal, infinite, all-powerful, all-knowing Creator of all—to whom belongs all allegiance, glory, and worship). Both are fully true with no conflict or contradiction. This distinction is absolutely essential for interpreting Scripture’s affirmations (general sense) and denials (special sense) of the existence of other gods.
If we have a category for real heavenly beings who are properly called elohim—and we must!—nothing here should be controversial. This is all straight from the text. If you’re not yet convinced, keep reading.
1.3. The gods are commanded to worship Yahweh.
That these heavenly beings owe God worship is a theme all throughout Scripture (Isa 6:1–3; Luke 2:13–14; Heb 1:6; Rev 4:8–11; 5:11–12; 7:11–12). Let’s look at several biblical texts that make the connection between gods and angels in the context of worship.
All who worship images [פֶ֗סֶל; τοῖς γλυπτοῖς] are put to shame, those who boast in idols [בָּאֱלִילִ֑ים; ἐν τοῖς εἰδώλοις αὐτῶν]—worship him, all you gods [כָּל־אֱלֹהִֽים; πάντες οἱ ἄγγελοι αὐτοῦ]!
Psalm 97:7
This is another clear text where the gods are real beings, interpreted by the LXX again as angels. The psalmist isn’t calling on non-existent beings to worship Yahweh. He’s calling on real heavenly beings—the angels—to worship their maker. Their connection to images and idols isn’t haphazard, as we’ll see later.
Rejoice, O heavens, together with him; and bow down to him all you gods [כל אלהים], for he will avenge the blood of his sons, and will render vengeance to his enemies, and will recompense those who hate him, and will atone for the land of his people.
Deuteronomy 32:43 [DSS]
Delight, O heavens, with him and worship him, you sons of God [πάντες υἱοὶ θεοῦ]. Delight, O nations, with his people and prevail with him, all you angels of God [πάντες ἄγγελοι θεοῦ]. For he will avenge the blood of his sons, and he will avenge and he will repay the enemies with vengeance, and he will repay those who hate, and the Lord will cleanse out the land of his people.
Deuteronomy 32:43 [LXX]
While not preserved in the Masoretic text of the Hebrew Bible or the English translations that follow it, the much older Hebrew Dead Sea Scrolls and Greek Septuagint both preserve another instance of gods or sons of God and angels in the context of worship of Yahweh.
See also Nehemiah 9:6; Job 38:6–7; Psalm 29:1–2; 148:1–2; 103:20–21, which use a variety of other terms for the angels in the context of their worship of Yahweh.
2. These other gods participate with Yahweh in a heavenly council or assembly.
The Bible is filled with references to and descriptions of God’s heavenly council or assembly. Those who live in his presence are described as his assembly or his council, and many texts record divine council scenes, where Yahweh interacts with his heavenly host in the exercise of his sovereignty over the affairs of man.
2.1. Yahweh’s assembly or council
God [אֱֽלֹהִ֗ים; Ὁ θεὸς] presides in the great assembly [בַּעֲדַת־אֵ֑ל; ἐν συναγωγῇ θεῶν]; he renders judgment among the gods [אֱלֹהִ֣ים; θεοὺς].
Psalm 82:1
Other translations render “great assembly” as divine council (ESV, NRSV, NET) since the Hebrew el (אֵ֑ל) can be God/divine or great. The LXX translates it as assembly of the gods, which may reflect the original Hebrew. Unfortunately, we don’t yet have direct Dead Sea Scroll coverage for this text. The 11QMelchizedek (11Q13) non-biblical Dead Sea Scroll cites Psalm 82 and interprets it as a group of heavenly beings: “the spirits . . . turn[ing aside] from the commandments of God to [commit evil] . . . .” The Syriac Peshitta translates it interpretively as assembly of angels [ܒܟܢܫܐ ܕܡܠܐ̈ܟܐ]. The strongest exegetical case is that this refers to a group of heavenly beings in Yahweh’s presence, an interpretation that was nearly universal in the several centuries before and after the Incarnation of Jesus.
But the concept of a divine council doesn’t depend on this one text.
The heavens praise your wonders, Lord, your faithfulness too, in the assembly of the holy ones [בִּקְהַ֥ל קְדֹשִֽׁים; ἐκκλησίᾳ ἁγίων]. 6 For who in the skies above can compare with the Lord? Who is like the Lord among the heavenly beings [בִּבְנֵ֥י אֵלִֽים; ἐν υἱοῖς θεοῦ]? 7 In the council of the holy ones [בְּסוֹד־קְדֹשִׁ֣ים; ἐν βουλῇ ἁγίων] God is greatly feared; he is more awesome than all who surround him.
Psalm 89:5–7
This is clearly a group of real beings in the heavenly realm rightly called Yahweh’s assembly or council. Many others use the same language: Jeremiah 23:18, 22; Job 15:8; Psalm 138:1 (where David joins the heavenly assembly in worship of Yahweh); Isaiah 14:13; and Amos 8:14.
2.2. Divine council scenes
Beyond these direct references to Yahweh’s heavenly assembly, his divine council, the Bible records many glimpses into Yahweh’s presence and engagement with his heavenly sons.
2.2.1. Well-known divine council scenes in the Old Testament
The most well-known of these divine council scenes are in Job 1 and 2 and Isaiah 6.
Job 1
One day the angels [בְּנֵ֣י הָאֱלֹהִ֔ים; οἱ ἄγγελοι τοῦ θεοῦ] came to present themselves before the Lord, and Satan also came with them. 7 The Lord said to Satan, “Where have you come from?” Satan answered the Lord, “From roaming throughout the earth, going back and forth on it.” 8 Then the Lord said to Satan, “Have you considered my servant Job? There is no one on earth like him; he is blameless and upright, a man who fears God and shuns evil.” 9 “Does Job fear God for nothing?” Satan replied. 10 “Have you not put a hedge around him and his household and everything he has? You have blessed the work of his hands, so that his flocks and herds are spread throughout the land. 11 But now stretch out your hand and strike everything he has, and he will surely curse you to your face.” 12 The Lord said to Satan, “Very well, then, everything he has is in your power, but on the man himself do not lay a finger.” Then Satan went out from the presence of the Lord.
Job 1:6–12
Job 2
On another day the angels [בְּנֵ֣י הָֽאֱלֹהִ֔ים; οἱ ἄγγελοι τοῦ θεοῦ] came to present themselves before the Lord, and Satan also came with them to present himself before him. 2 And the Lord said to Satan, “Where have you come from?” Satan answered the Lord, “From roaming throughout the earth, going back and forth on it.” 3 Then the Lord said to Satan, “Have you considered my servant Job? There is no one on earth like him; he is blameless and upright, a man who fears God and shuns evil. And he still maintains his integrity, though you incited me against him to ruin him without any reason.” 4 “Skin for skin!” Satan replied. “A man will give all he has for his own life. 5 But now stretch out your hand and strike his flesh and bones, and he will surely curse you to your face.” 6 The Lord said to Satan, “Very well, then, he is in your hands; but you must spare his life.”
Job 2:1–6
Isaiah 6
In the year that King Uzziah died, I saw the Lord, high and exalted, seated on a throne; and the train of his robe filled the temple. 2 Above him were seraphim, each with six wings: With two wings they covered their faces, with two they covered their feet, and with two they were flying. 3 And they were calling to one another: “Holy, holy, holy is the Lord Almighty; the whole earth is full of his glory.” 4 At the sound of their voices the doorposts and thresholds shook and the temple was filled with smoke. 5 “Woe to me!” I cried. “I am ruined! For I am a man of unclean lips, and I live among a people of unclean lips, and my eyes have seen the King, the Lord Almighty.” 6 Then one of the seraphim flew to me with a live coal in his hand, which he had taken with tongs from the altar. 7 With it he touched my mouth and said, “See, this has touched your lips; your guilt is taken away and your sin atoned for.” 8 Then I heard the voice of the Lord saying, “Whom shall I send? And who will go for us [לָ֑נוּ]?” And I said, “Here am I. Send me!” 9 He said, “Go and tell this people: “ ‘Be ever hearing, but never understanding; be ever seeing, but never perceiving.’ 10 Make the heart of this people calloused; make their ears dull and close their eyes. Otherwise they might see with their eyes, hear with their ears, understand with their hearts, and turn and be healed.” 11 Then I said, “For how long, Lord?” And he answered: “Until the cities lie ruined and without inhabitant, until the houses are left deserted and the fields ruined and ravaged, 12 until the Lord has sent everyone far away and the land is utterly forsaken. 13 And though a tenth remains in the land, it will again be laid waste. But as the terebinth and oak leave stumps when they are cut down, so the holy seed will be the stump in the land.”
Isaiah 6:1–13
As was true of all God’s prophets, they were invited into the divine council to see and receive messages from God (Jer 23:18, 22; cf. Amos 3:7).
2.2.2. Lesser-known divine council scenes in the Old Testament
Numerous other Old Testament passages give us glimpses into the courts of heaven.
Daniel 4
I said, “Belteshazzar, chief of the magicians, I know that the spirit of the holy gods is in you, and no mystery is too difficult for you. Here is my dream; interpret it for me. 10 These are the visions I saw while lying in bed: I looked, and there before me stood a tree in the middle of the land. Its height was enormous. 11 The tree grew large and strong and its top touched the sky; it was visible to the ends of the earth. 12 Its leaves were beautiful, its fruit abundant, and on it was food for all. Under it the wild animals found shelter, and the birds lived in its branches; from it every creature was fed. 13 “In the visions I saw while lying in bed, I looked, and there before me was a holy one, a messenger, coming down from heaven. 14 He called in a loud voice: ‘Cut down the tree and trim off its branches; strip off its leaves and scatter its fruit. Let the animals flee from under it and the birds from its branches. 15 But let the stump and its roots, bound with iron and bronze, remain in the ground, in the grass of the field. “ ‘Let him be drenched with the dew of heaven, and let him live with the animals among the plants of the earth. 16 Let his mind be changed from that of a man and let him be given the mind of an animal, till seven times pass by for him. 17 “ ‘The decision is announced by messengers [עִירִין֙], the holy ones [קַדִּישִׁ֖ין] declare the verdict, so that the living may know that the Most High is sovereign over all kingdoms on earth and gives them to anyone he wishes and sets over them the lowliest of people.’ 18 “This is the dream that I, King Nebuchadnezzar, had. Now, Belteshazzar, tell me what it means, for none of the wise men in my kingdom can interpret it for me. But you can, because the spirit of the holy gods is in you.”
Daniel 4:9–18
Daniel 7
“As I looked, “thrones were set in place, and the Ancient of Days took his seat. His clothing was as white as snow; the hair of his head was white like wool. His throne was flaming with fire, and its wheels were all ablaze. 10 A river of fire was flowing, coming out from before him. Thousands upon thousands attended him; ten thousand times ten thousand stood before him. The court was seated, and the books were opened. 11 “Then I continued to watch because of the boastful words the horn was speaking. I kept looking until the beast was slain and its body destroyed and thrown into the blazing fire. 12 (The other beasts had been stripped of their authority, but were allowed to live for a period of time.) 13 “In my vision at night I looked, and there before me was one like a son of man, coming with the clouds of heaven. He approached the Ancient of Days and was led into his presence. 14 He was given authority, glory and sovereign power; all nations and peoples of every language worshiped him. His dominion is an everlasting dominion that will not pass away, and his kingdom is one that will never be destroyed.
Daniel 7:9–14
Zechariah 3
Then he showed me Joshua the high priest standing before the angel of the Lord, and Satan standing at his right side to accuse him. 2 The Lord said to Satan, “The Lord rebuke you, Satan! The Lord, who has chosen Jerusalem, rebuke you! Is not this man a burning stick snatched from the fire?” 3 Now Joshua was dressed in filthy clothes as he stood before the angel. 4 The angel said to those who were standing before him, “Take off his filthy clothes.” Then he said to Joshua, “See, I have taken away your sin, and I will put fine garments on you.” 5 Then I said, “Put a clean turban on his head.” So they put a clean turban on his head and clothed him, while the angel of the Lord stood by. 6 The angel of the Lord gave this charge to Joshua: 7 “This is what the Lord Almighty says: ‘If you will walk in obedience to me and keep my requirements, then you will govern my house and have charge of my courts, and I will give you a place among these standing here. 8 “ ‘Listen, High Priest Joshua, you and your associates seated before you, who are men symbolic of things to come: I am going to bring my servant, the Branch. 9 See, the stone I have set in front of Joshua! There are seven eyes on that one stone, and I will engrave an inscription on it,’ says the Lord Almighty, ‘and I will remove the sin of this land in a single day. 10 “ ‘In that day each of you will invite your neighbor to sit under your vine and fig tree,’ declares the Lord Almighty.”
Zechariah 3:1–10
1 Kings 22 // 2 Chronicles 18
One of the most fascinating divine council scenes appears in 1 Kings and 2 Chronicles.
But Micaiah said, “As surely as the Lord lives, I can tell him only what the Lord tells me.” 15 When he arrived, the king asked him, “Micaiah, shall we go to war against Ramoth Gilead, or not?” “Attack and be victorious,” he answered, “for the Lord will give it into the king’s hand.” 16 The king said to him, “How many times must I make you swear to tell me nothing but the truth in the name of the Lord?” 17 Then Micaiah answered, “I saw all Israel scattered on the hills like sheep without a shepherd, and the Lord said, ‘These people have no master. Let each one go home in peace.’ ” 18 The king of Israel said to Jehoshaphat, “Didn’t I tell you that he never prophesies anything good about me, but only bad?” 19 Micaiah continued, “Therefore hear the word of the Lord: I saw the Lord sitting on his throne with all the multitudes of heaven standing around him on his right and on his left. 20 And the Lord said, ‘Who will entice Ahab into attacking Ramoth Gilead and going to his death there?’ “One suggested this, and another that. 21 Finally, a spirit came forward, stood before the Lord and said, ‘I will entice him.’ 22 “ ‘By what means?’ the Lord asked. “ ‘I will go out and be a deceiving spirit in the mouths of all his prophets,’ he said. “ ‘You will succeed in enticing him,’ said the Lord. ‘Go and do it.’ 23 “So now the Lord has put a deceiving spirit in the mouths of all these prophets of yours. The Lord has decreed disaster for you.” 24 Then Zedekiah son of Kenaanah went up and slapped Micaiah in the face. “Which way did the spirit from the Lord go when he went from me to speak to you?” he asked. 25 Micaiah replied, “You will find out on the day you go to hide in an inner room.” 26 The king of Israel then ordered, “Take Micaiah and send him back to Amon the ruler of the city and to Joash the king’s son 27 and say, ‘This is what the king says: Put this fellow in prison and give him nothing but bread and water until I return safely.’ ” 28 Micaiah declared, “If you ever return safely, the LORD has not spoken through me.” Then he added, “Mark my words, all you people!”
1 Kings 22:14–28
But Micaiah said, “As surely as the Lord lives, I can tell him only what my God says.” 14 When he arrived, the king asked him, “Micaiah, shall we go to war against Ramoth Gilead, or shall I not?” “Attack and be victorious,” he answered, “for they will be given into your hand.” 15 The king said to him, “How many times must I make you swear to tell me nothing but the truth in the name of the Lord?” 16 Then Micaiah answered, “I saw all Israel scattered on the hills like sheep without a shepherd, and the Lord said, ‘These people have no master. Let each one go home in peace.’ ” 17 The king of Israel said to Jehoshaphat, “Didn’t I tell you that he never prophesies anything good about me, but only bad?” 18 Micaiah continued, “Therefore hear the word of the Lord: I saw the Lord sitting on his throne with all the multitudes of heaven standing on his right and on his left. 19 And the Lord said, ‘Who will entice Ahab king of Israel into attacking Ramoth Gilead and going to his death there?’ “One suggested this, and another that. 20 Finally, a spirit came forward, stood before the Lord and said, ‘I will entice him.’ “ ‘By what means?’ the Lord asked. 21 “ ‘I will go and be a deceiving spirit in the mouths of all his prophets,’ he said. “ ‘You will succeed in enticing him,’ said the Lord. ‘Go and do it.’ 22 “So now the Lord has put a deceiving spirit in the mouths of these prophets of yours. The Lord has decreed disaster for you.” 23 Then Zedekiah son of Kenaanah went up and slapped Micaiah in the face. “Which way did the spirit from the Lord go when he went from me to speak to you?” he asked. 24 Micaiah replied, “You will find out on the day you go to hide in an inner room.” 25 The king of Israel then ordered, “Take Micaiah and send him back to Amon the ruler of the city and to Joash the king’s son, 26 and say, ‘This is what the king says: Put this fellow in prison and give him nothing but bread and water until I return safely.’ ” 27 Micaiah declared, “If you ever return safely, the Lord has not spoken through me.” Then he added, “Mark my words, all you people!”
2 Chronicles 18:13–27
Creation
While debated, the early chapters of Genesis also almost certainly contain references to Yahweh and his angelic council (Gen 1:26; 3:22). Regardless of what you think about these Genesis passages, we know that creation itself involved a divine council scene according to Job 38:7.
Where were you when I laid the earth’s foundation? Tell me, if you understand. 5 Who marked off its dimensions? Surely you know! Who stretched a measuring line across it? 6 On what were its footings set, or who laid its cornerstone— 7 while the morning stars sang together and all the angels [בְּנֵ֥י אֱלֹהִֽים; πάντες ἄγγελοί μου] shouted for joy?
Job 38:4–7
Yahweh created the physical universe in the company of his heavenly sons, who celebrated at the display of his awesome power.
Judgment at Babel
But the Lord came down to see the city and the tower the people were building. 6 The Lord said, “If as one people speaking the same language they have begun to do this, then nothing they plan to do will be impossible for them. 7 Come, let us go down [נֵֽרְדָ֔ה וְנָבְלָ֥ה; καταβάντες συγχέωμεν] and confuse their language so they will not understand each other.” 8 So the Lord scattered them from there over all the earth, and they stopped building the city. 9 That is why it was called Babel—because there the Lord confused the language of the whole world. From there the Lord scattered them over the face of the whole earth.
Genesis 11:5–9
Like at creation, Yahweh engages with his heavenly sons at the events of Babel.
The giving of the Law at Sinai
He said: “The Lord came from Sinai and dawned over them from Seir; he shone forth from Mount Paran. He came with myriads of holy ones [מֵרִבְבֹ֣ת קֹ֑דֶשׁ; cf. ἐκ δεξιῶν αὐτοῦ ἄγγελοι μετʼ αὐτοῦ] from the south, from his mountain slopes. 3 Surely it is you who love the people; all the holy ones are in your hand. At your feet they all bow down, and from you receive instruction, 4 the law that Moses gave us, the possession of the assembly of Jacob. 5 He was king over Jeshurun when the leaders of the people assembled, along with the tribes of Israel.
Deuteronomy 33:2–5
Numerous other passages teach that angels were present and involved in the giving of the law (Psa 68:17; Acts 7:37–38, 7:52–53; Gal 3:19–20; Heb 2:1–3). The inauguration of the Mosaic Covenant was a divine council scene—even though the details of that scene are not directly recorded in Scripture.
I’d be remiss if I didn’t mention Ezekiel 1:1–3:15, which is almost certainly a divine council scene. But I’ll leave that for your own consideration.
2.2.3. Divine council scenes in the New Testament
This isn’t a unique phenomenon to the Old Testament. The New Testament gives us a glimpse into the heavenly realm as well.
Ephesians 3
Although I am less than the least of all the Lord’s people, this grace was given me: to preach to the Gentiles the boundless riches of Christ, 9 and to make plain to everyone the administration of this mystery, which for ages past was kept hidden in God, who created all things. 10 His intent was that now, through the church, the manifold wisdom of God should be made known to the rulers and authorities in the heavenly realms, 11 according to his eternal purpose that he accomplished in Christ Jesus our Lord. 12 In him and through faith in him we may approach God with freedom and confidence. 13 I ask you, therefore, not to be discouraged because of my sufferings for you, which are your glory.
Ephesians 3:8–13
While not directly a divine council scene, Paul presents the gospel’s cosmic audience. God’s intent in his eternal redemptive plan in Christ was to put on display in front of all who surround him in the heavenly realm his infinite and resplendent wisdom. The gospel is about something much bigger than the affairs of this world.
Revelation 4–5
After this I looked, and there before me was a door standing open in heaven. And the voice I had first heard speaking to me like a trumpet said, “Come up here, and I will show you what must take place after this.” 2 At once I was in the Spirit, and there before me was a throne in heaven with someone sitting on it. 3 And the one who sat there had the appearance of jasper and ruby. A rainbow that shone like an emerald encircled the throne. 4 Surrounding the throne were twenty-four other thrones, and seated on them were twenty-four elders. They were dressed in white and had crowns of gold on their heads. 5 From the throne came flashes of lightning, rumblings and peals of thunder. In front of the throne, seven lamps were blazing. These are the seven spirits of God. 6 Also in front of the throne there was what looked like a sea of glass, clear as crystal. In the center, around the throne, were four living creatures, and they were covered with eyes, in front and in back. 7 The first living creature was like a lion, the second was like an ox, the third had a face like a man, the fourth was like a flying eagle. 8 Each of the four living creatures had six wings and was covered with eyes all around, even under its wings. Day and night they never stop saying: “ ‘Holy, holy, holy is the Lord God Almighty,’ who was, and is, and is to come.” 9 Whenever the living creatures give glory, honor and thanks to him who sits on the throne and who lives for ever and ever, 10 the twenty-four elders fall down before him who sits on the throne and worship him who lives for ever and ever. They lay their crowns before the throne and say: 11 “You are worthy, our Lord and God, to receive glory and honor and power, for you created all things, and by your will they were created and have their being.” 1 Then I saw in the right hand of him who sat on the throne a scroll with writing on both sides and sealed with seven seals. 2 And I saw a mighty angel proclaiming in a loud voice, “Who is worthy to break the seals and open the scroll?” 3 But no one in heaven or on earth or under the earth could open the scroll or even look inside it. 4 I wept and wept because no one was found who was worthy to open the scroll or look inside. 5 Then one of the elders said to me, “Do not weep! See, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Root of David, has triumphed. He is able to open the scroll and its seven seals.” 6 Then I saw a Lamb, looking as if it had been slain, standing at the center of the throne, encircled by the four living creatures and the elders. The Lamb had seven horns and seven eyes, which are the seven spirits of God sent out into all the earth. 7 He went and took the scroll from the right hand of him who sat on the throne. 8 And when he had taken it, the four living creatures and the twenty-four elders fell down before the Lamb. Each one had a harp and they were holding golden bowls full of incense, which are the prayers of God’s people. 9 And they sang a new song, saying: “You are worthy to take the scroll and to open its seals, because you were slain, and with your blood you purchased for God persons from every tribe and language and people and nation. 10 You have made them to be a kingdom and priests to serve our God, and they will reign on the earth.” 11 Then I looked and heard the voice of many angels, numbering thousands upon thousands, and ten thousand times ten thousand. They encircled the throne and the living creatures and the elders. 12 In a loud voice they were saying: “Worthy is the Lamb, who was slain, to receive power and wealth and wisdom and strength and honor and glory and praise!” 13 Then I heard every creature in heaven and on earth and under the earth and on the sea, and all that is in them, saying: “To him who sits on the throne and to the Lamb be praise and honor and glory and power, for ever and ever!” 14 The four living creatures said, “Amen,” and the elders fell down and worshiped.
Revelation 4:1–5:14
This is perhaps the most glorious scene in all of Scripture. The triune Creator receiving eternal worship from all his creatures.
Understanding the role of angels in Yahweh’s throne room brings profound significance to what it means for redeemed humanity to rule and reign with Christ (cf. Matt 19:28; Luke 22:28–30; 1 Cor 6:2–3; 2 Tim 2:12; Rev 2:26–27; 3:21; 5:10; 20:4; 22:5; cf. Rom 8:17). For more on this, see my article “The Judgment of the Sons of God by the Sons of God.”
3. These heavenly beings play ruling roles over the nations.
As we saw above, God involves his council in his rule over the affairs of humanity. This extends further in various texts that present some of these heavenly beings as rulers over various nations.
3.1. Old Testament
But the prince [וְשַׂ֣ר; ὁ στρατηγὸς] of the Persian kingdom resisted me twenty-one days. Then Michael, one of the chief princes [אַחַ֛ד הַשָּׂרִ֥ים הָרִאשֹׁנִ֖ים; εἷς τῶν ἀρχόντων τῶν πρώτων], came to help me, because I was detained there with the king [מַלְכֵ֥י; τοῦ βασιλέως] of Persia.
Daniel 10:13
So he said, “Do you know why I have come to you? Soon I will return to fight against the prince [שַׂ֣ר; τοῦ στρατηγοῦ] of Persia, and when I go, the prince [שַׂר; στρατηγὸς] of Greece will come; 21 but first I will tell you what is written in the Book of Truth. (No one supports me against them except Michael, your prince [שַׂרְכֶֽם; ὁ ἄγγελος].
Daniel 10:20–21
At that time Michael, the great prince [הַשַּׂ֣ר הַגָּד֗וֹל; ὁ ἄγγελος ὁ μέγας] who protects your people, will arise. There will be a time of distress such as has not happened from the beginning of nations until then. But at that time your people—everyone whose name is found written in the book—will be delivered.
Daniel 12:1
But where does this come from? How did these heavenly beings get assigned to rule over the nations? The answer is found in Deuteronomy 32:8–9, which functions as a commentary on Genesis 10–11 and the dividing of the nations.
When the Most High gave the nations their inheritance, when he divided all mankind, he set up boundaries for the peoples according to the number of the sons of God [בני אלוהים; ἀγγέλων θεοῦ]. 9 For the Lord’s portion is his people, Jacob his allotted inheritance.
Deuteronomy 32:8–9
It’s all but certain that the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Septuagint, both of which are far older than the Masoretic text of the Hebrew Bible, preserve the original reading. There’s nearly a scholarly consensus on this point now. The Masoretic text reads “sons of Israel,” but is almost certainly a later emendation by Rabbinic Jews in response to the rise of Christianity in the first few centuries AD and the Christian use of many supernatural texts of the Old Testament.
Regardless of whether you accept this reading, the Old Testament is clear on the role of heavenly beings in positions of authority over the nations. Without this text, you’re left wondering how they were placed in those positions of authority—but the central point of heavenly beings ruling the nations remains unchallenged.
3.2. New Testament
This isn’t unique to the Old Testament; it’s all throughout the pages of the New Testament. Jesus referred to Satan as a ruler with a kingdom and authority (Matt 12:26; Luke 11:18; John 12:31; 14:30; 16:11; cf. Luke 4:5–6; 22:53), as did Paul (Eph 2:2; Col 1:13) and John (1 John 5:19). Paul also referred repeatedly to heavenly rulers with authority (Rom 8:38; 1 Cor 2:6, 8; 8:5; 15:24; 2 Cor 4:4; Gal 4:3, 8–9; Eph 1:21; 2:2; 3:10; 6:12; Col 1:16; 2:8, 10, 15, 20)—as did the other New Testament authors (1 Pet 3:22; 2 Pet 2:4, 10; 1 John 5:19; Jude 6, 8–9; Rev 12:7, 9). We shouldn’t be surprised by these New Testament realities if we’re carefully reading and paying attention to their Old Testament precursors.
4. These heavenly ruling beings are the gods of the nations = “demons”
This is where some may start to take issue, but the texts all lead to a very clear conclusion: the gods of the nations were real heavenly beings.
4.1. The gods of Egypt were real.
This is easiest to see in Israel’s Exodus from Egypt—in both the secret arts of Egypt’s magicians and in Yahweh’s victory over Egypt’s gods.
4.1.1. The secret arts of Egypt’s magicians
Pharaoh then summoned wise men and sorcerers, and the Egyptian magicians also did the same things by their secret arts [בְּלַהֲטֵיהֶ֖ם; ταῖς φαρμακείαις αὐτῶν]: 12 Each one threw down his staff and it became a snake. But Aaron’s staff swallowed up their staffs.
Exodus 7:11–12
But the Egyptian magicians did the same things by their secret arts [בְּלָטֵיהֶ֑ם;
Exodus 7:22
ταῖς φαρμακείαις αὐτῶν], and Pharaoh’s heart became hard; he would not listen to Moses and Aaron, just as the Lord had said.
But the magicians did the same things by their secret arts [בְּלָטֵיהֶ֑ם;
Exodus 8:7
ταῖς φαρμακείαις αὐτῶν]; they also made frogs come up on the land of Egypt.
This was not mere trickery. This was supernatural enablement through the powers of darkness. But their gods had limited power (cf. Exod 8:18–19; 9:11) and could not match Yahweh’s sovereign power.
The Old and New Testaments are full of prohibitions and mentions of divination and related illicit encounters with the spiritual realm (Gen 30:27; 44:5, 15; Exod 7:11, 22; 8:7, 18; 22:18; Lev 17:7; 19:26–28, 31; 20:6, 27; Num 22:6–7; 23:23; 24:1; Deut 13:5; 18:9–14; 26:14; 32:17; Josh 13:22; 1 Sam 15:23; 28:3, 7–25; 2 Kgs 9:22; 16:3; 17:17; 21:6; 23:10, 24; 1 Chr 10:13–14; 2 Chr 33:6; Esth 3:7; Ps 58:5; Prov 16:10; Eccl 10:11; Isa 2:6; 8:19; 19:3, 11–12; 29:4; 44:25; 47:9–13; 57:3; Jer 10:1–16; 14:14; 19:4–5; 27:9; 29:8–9; 32:35; Ezek 13:1–23; 16:21; 20:26, 31; 21:21–23, 29; 22:28; 23:37; Dan 1:20; 2:2, 10, 27; 4:7, 9; 5:7, 11, 15; Hos 4:12; Mic 3:6–7; Nah 3:4–5; Zech 10:2; Mal 3:5; Matt 2:1–12; 24:24; Mark 7:20–23; Acts 8:9–25; 13:6–12; 16:16–19; 19:13–16, 19; Gal 3:1; 5:19–21; 2 Thess 2:9; Rev 9:21; 18:23; 21:8; 22:15). Sinful engagement with the spiritual world was real, and its consequences were devastating. That’s just as true today as it was millennia ago.
4.1.2. Yahweh’s judgment of Egypt’s gods
Yahweh’s judgment on Egypt’s heavenly rulers further proves the reality of these gods.
On that same night I will pass through Egypt and strike down every firstborn of both people and animals, and I will bring judgment on all the gods of Egypt. I am the Lord.
Exodus 12:12
What would it mean to bring judgment on nonexistent beings? There is no glory in winning a match against a competitor who doesn’t show up—let alone who doesn’t even exist.
Now I know that the Lord is greater than all other gods, for he did this to those who had treated Israel arrogantly.”
Exodus 18:11
The Israelites set out from Rameses on the fifteenth day of the first month, the day after the Passover. They marched out defiantly in full view of all the Egyptians, 4 who were burying all their firstborn, whom the Lord had struck down among them; for the Lord had brought judgment on their gods.
Numbers 33:3–4
When Yahweh brings judgment on a nation, it is simultaneously judgment on its earthly and heavenly rulers.
The Lord Almighty, the God of Israel, says: “I am about to bring punishment on Amon god of Thebes, on Pharaoh, on Egypt and her gods and her kings, and on those who rely on Pharaoh.
Jeremiah 46:25
4.2. Yahweh gave these gods to the nations.
We have a couple more clues about this relationship between the nations and their gods.
And when you look up to the sky and see the sun, the moon and the stars—all the heavenly array [צְבָ֣א הַשָּׁמַ֔יִם; τὸν κόσμον τοῦ οὐρανοῦ]—do not be enticed into bowing down to them and worshiping things the Lord your God has apportioned to all the nations under heaven.
Deuteronomy 4:19
“Heavenly array” likely refers to angels, his heavenly sons, whom the Lord had apportioned to the nations. The Hebrew word tseva’ (צְבָ֣א) is used of both the stars and angels, often in a way that almost equates them (Deut 4:19; Deut 17:3; Judg 5:20; 1 Kgs 22:19; 2 Kgs 23:4–5; Neh 9:6; Job 25:5; Job 38:7; Ps 148:2–3; Isa 14:12–13; Isa 24:21–23; Jer 8:2; Jer 19:13; Zeph 1:5; Dan 8:10; Mark 13:25; 1 Cor 15:39–42; Jas 1:17; Rev 1:20 [cf. Rev 3:1]; Rev 9:1–2 [cf. Rev 20:1]; Rev 12:3–4, 7–9).
Yahweh gave these heavenly beings to the other nations—not to Israel.
They went off and worshiped other gods [אֱלֹהִ֣ים; θεοῖς] and bowed down to them, gods [אֱלֹהִים֙] they did not know, gods he had not given them.
Deuteronomy 29:26
While it’s less explicit than Deuteronomy 4:19, this text may imply that these gods had been given to the other nations—but not to Israel, which made Israel’s worship of them doubly evil. These were the “rival” gods of the nations, and worship of them was real spiritual adultery (Exod 34:14–16; Lev 17:7; 20:5–6; Num 25:1–3; Deut 31:16; 32:15–18; Judg 2:17; 8:27, 33; 1 Chr 5:25; 2 Chr 21:11; 2 Kgs 9:22; Ps 106:28, 39; Isa 1:21; 57:3–9; Jer 2:20; 3:1, 6, 8–10; 13:27; 31:32; Ezek 6:9; 16:15–34; 23:1–47; 43:7, 9; Hos 1:2; 2:5, 8; 3:1–3; 4:10–14, 18; 5:3–4; 6:10; 9:1; Nah 3:4; 1 Cor 6:15–16; Rev 2:14, 20–22; 14:8; 17:1–2, 4–5; 18:3, 9; 19:2).
4.3. The gods of the nations are “demons.”
Further evidence that these gods of the nations are real beings comes from their identification as “demons.” I put demons in quotation marks here, because the Greek word for demon [δαιμόνιος or δαιμόνιον] doesn’t always refer to the beings we encounter in the Gospels. It can often just be another term for a supernatural being, broadly synonymous with theos (θεός) in Greek or elohim (אֱלֹהִים) in Hebrew. That’s how it’s used in Acts 17:18 when the Epicurean and Stoic philosophers claimed that Paul through his preaching of Jesus was “advocating foreign gods [Ξένων δαιμονίων]”—foreign “demons.”
They made him jealous with their foreign gods [בְּזָרִ֑ים; ἀλλοτρίοις] and angered him with their detestable idols [בְּתוֹעֵבֹ֖ת; βδελύγμασιν]. 17 They sacrificed to false gods [לַשֵּׁדִים֙; δαιμονίοις], which are not God [אֱלֹ֔הַ; θεῷ]—gods [אֱלֹהִ֖ים; θεοῖς] they had not known, gods that recently appeared, gods your ancestors did not fear.
Deuteronomy 32:16–17
The Septuagint’s use of daimoniois exposes their belief that these foreign gods were real beings. This is not an isolated use but occurs again in Psalm 96 and 106.
For great is the Lord and most worthy of praise; he is to be feared above all gods [
Psalm 96:4–5
עַל־כָּל־אֱלֹהִֽים; ἐπὶ πάντας τοὺς θεούς]. 5 For all the gods [כָּל־אֱלֹהֵ֣י; πάντες οἱ θεοὶ] of the nations are idols [אֱלִילִ֑ים; δαιμόνια], but the Lord made the heavens.
They worshiped their idols, which became a snare to them. 37 They sacrificed their sons and their daughters to false gods [לַשֵּֽׁדִים; αὐτῶν τοῖς δαιμονίοις].
Psalm 106:36–37
See also Baruch 4:7, which, while not canonical, reveals the understanding of the intertestamental period: “For you provoked the one who made you by sacrificing to demons [δαιμονίοις] and not to God.”
Paul agrees that the gods of the nations are “demons.”
Consider the people of Israel: Do not those who eat the sacrifices participate in the altar? 19 Do I mean then that food sacrificed to an idol is anything, or that an idol is anything? 20 No, but the sacrifices of pagans are offered to demons [δαιμονίοις], not to God, and I do not want you to be participants with demons [τῶν δαιμονίων]. 21 You cannot drink the cup of the Lord and the cup of demons [δαιμονίων] too; you cannot have a part in both the Lord’s table and the table of demons [δαιμονίων]. 22 Are we trying to arouse the Lord’s jealousy? Are we stronger than he?
1 Corinthians 10:18–22
A straightforward reading of Paul clearly demonstrates his belief that pagans offered sacrifices to real heavenly beings.
So then, about eating food sacrificed to idols [τῶν εἰδωλοθύτων]: We know that “An idol [εἴδωλον] is nothing at all in the world” and that “There is no God [θεὸς] but one.” 5 For even if there are so-called gods [θεοὶ], whether in heaven or on earth (as indeed there are many “gods” [θεοὶ] and many “lords”), 6 yet for us there is but one God [θεὸς], the Father, from whom all things came and for whom we live; and there is but one Lord, Jesus Christ, through whom all things came and through whom we live.
1 Corinthians 8:4–6
This parallel passage shows that Paul viewed daimonion (δαιμόνιον) and theos (θεός) as interchangeable synonyms—both of which represented real spirit beings.
John seems to agree with Paul.
The rest of mankind who were not killed by these plagues still did not repent of the work of their hands; they did not stop worshiping demons [τὰ δαιμόνια], and idols [τὰ εἴδωλα] of gold, silver, bronze, stone and wood—idols that cannot see or hear or walk. 21 Nor did they repent of their murders, their magic arts, their sexual immorality or their thefts.
Revelation 9:20–21
Idol worship all throughout Scripture is “demon” worship—the inappropriate esteem of heavenly beings usurping their creaturely role in Yahweh’s council. Man made idols out of wood and stone to represent the spirit beings in heaven that they worshiped and wanted to engage with. The physical statues themselves were never the gods; they were merely representatives of the real beings they hoped to call to their aid.
4.4. The New Testament identifies Beelzebub, the god of Ekron, as Satan.
Now Ahaziah had fallen through the lattice of his upper room in Samaria and injured himself. So he sent messengers, saying to them, “Go and consult Baal-Zebub, the god of Ekron, to see if I will recover from this injury.” 3 But the angel of the Lord said to Elijah the Tishbite, “Go up and meet the messengers of the king of Samaria and ask them, ‘Is it because there is no God in Israel that you are going off to consult Baal-Zebub, the god of Ekron?’
2 Kings 1:2–3
But when the Pharisees heard this, they said, “It is only by Beelzebul, the prince of demons, that this fellow drives out demons.” 25 Jesus knew their thoughts and said to them, “Every kingdom divided against itself will be ruined, and every city or household divided against itself will not stand. 26 If Satan drives out Satan, he is divided against himself. How then can his kingdom stand? 27 And if I drive out demons by Beelzebul, by whom do your people drive them out? So then, they will be your judges. 28 But if it is by the Spirit of God that I drive out demons, then the kingdom of God has come upon you.
Matthew 12:24–28
5. Some of these heavenly beings rebelled—on multiple occasions.
Heavenly rebellions—along with their corresponding hostility toward both Yahweh and humanity—permeate the storyline of the Bible. There seem to be three primary patterns of rebellion, and in each case they appear to involve the joint rebellion of God’s heavenly and earthly sons. Evil heavenly sons initiate, and weak but willful human sons participate.
5.1. Genesis 3 and the Lie
The first joint divine–human rebellion appears in Genesis 3, when the serpent out of pride (1 Tim 3:6; Isa 14:13–14; Ezek 28:17; cf. Luke 10:18) and likely jealousy (Wisdom of Solomon 2:24) turned away from his maker and attacked Yahweh’s earthly image bearers, enticing Eve to reject Yahweh’s good will.
Now the serpent was more crafty than any of the wild animals the Lord God had made. He said to the woman, “Did God really say, ‘You must not eat from any tree in the garden’?” 2 The woman said to the serpent, “We may eat fruit from the trees in the garden, 3 but God did say, ‘You must not eat fruit from the tree that is in the middle of the garden, and you must not touch it, or you will die.’ ” 4 “You will not certainly die,” the serpent said to the woman. 5 “For God knows that when you eat from it your eyes will be opened, and you will be like God, knowing good and evil.” 6 When the woman saw that the fruit of the tree was good for food and pleasing to the eye, and also desirable for gaining wisdom, she took some and ate it. She also gave some to her husband, who was with her, and he ate it. 7 Then the eyes of both of them were opened, and they realized they were naked; so they sewed fig leaves together and made coverings for themselves. 8 Then the man and his wife heard the sound of the Lord God as he was walking in the garden in the cool of the day, and they hid from the Lord God among the trees of the garden. 9 But the Lord God called to the man, “Where are you?” 10 He answered, “I heard you in the garden, and I was afraid because I was naked; so I hid.” 11 And he said, “Who told you that you were naked? Have you eaten from the tree that I commanded you not to eat from?” 12 The man said, “The woman you put here with me—she gave me some fruit from the tree, and I ate it.” 13 Then the Lord God said to the woman, “What is this you have done?” The woman said, “The serpent deceived me, and I ate.” 14 So the Lord God said to the serpent, “Because you have done this, “Cursed are you above all livestock and all wild animals! You will crawl on your belly and you will eat dust all the days of your life. 15 And I will put enmity between you and the woman, and between your offspring and hers; he will crush your head, and you will strike his heel.” 16 To the woman he said, “I will make your pains in childbearing very severe; with painful labor you will give birth to children. Your desire will be for your husband, and he will rule over you.” 17 To Adam he said, “Because you listened to your wife and ate fruit from the tree about which I commanded you, ‘You must not eat from it,’ “Cursed is the ground because of you; through painful toil you will eat food from it all the days of your life. 18 It will produce thorns and thistles for you, and you will eat the plants of the field. 19 By the sweat of your brow you will eat your food until you return to the ground, since from it you were taken; for dust you are and to dust you will return.” 20 Adam named his wife Eve, because she would become the mother of all the living. 21 The Lord God made garments of skin for Adam and his wife and clothed them. 22 And the Lord God said, “The man has now become like one of us, knowing good and evil. He must not be allowed to reach out his hand and take also from the tree of life and eat, and live forever.” 23 So the Lord God banished him from the Garden of Eden to work the ground from which he had been taken. 24 After he drove the man out, he placed on the east side of the Garden of Eden cherubim and a flaming sword flashing back and forth to guard the way to the tree of life.
Genesis 3:1–24
This pattern of devious, dark lies that plunged humans into death and destruction has continued for millennia—the first being archetypal for all future generations. From the beginning, Satan has been lying, killing, and destroying mankind (John 8:44; 10:10; 1 John 3:8; Rev 20:10). But he didn’t stop in the garden.
5.2. Genesis 6 and Lust
The next recorded rebellion happened when more of Yahweh’s heavenly sons left their proper dwelling and attempted to corrupt the human race by having sexual intercourse and procreating with human women. This may have been in an attempt to prevent the seed promised in Genesis 3:15 from coming and crushing the head of the serpent. Surely the seed couldn’t come through a corrupted bloodline.
When human beings began to increase in number on the earth and daughters were born to them, 2 the sons of God [בְנֵי־הָֽאֱלֹהִים֙; οἱ υἱοὶ τοῦ θεοῦ] saw that the daughters of humans [בְּנ֣וֹת הָֽאָדָ֔ם; τὰς θυγατέρας τῶν ἀνθρώπων] were beautiful, and they married any of them they chose. 3 Then the Lord said, “My Spirit will not contend with humans forever, for they are mortal; their days will be a hundred and twenty years.” 4 The Nephilim [הַנְּפִלִ֞ים; οἱ . . . γίγαντες] were on the earth in those days—and also afterward—when the sons of God [בְּנֵ֤י הָֽאֱלֹהִים֙; οἱ υἱοὶ τοῦ θεοῦ] went to the daughters of humans [בְּנ֣וֹת הָֽאָדָ֔ם; τὰς θυγατέρας τῶν ἀνθρώπων] and had children by them. They were the heroes of old, men of renown. 5 The Lord saw how great the wickedness of the human race had become on the earth, and that every inclination of the thoughts of the human heart was only evil all the time. 6 The Lord regretted that he had made human beings on the earth, and his heart was deeply troubled. 7 So the Lord said, “I will wipe from the face of the earth the human race I have created—and with them the animals, the birds and the creatures that move along the ground—for I regret that I have made them.” 8 But Noah found favor in the eyes of the Lord.
Genesis 6:1–8
This may sound fantastical to modern ears, but it was the nearly universal understanding of the text until Augustine popularized the novel Sethite view. Historical theology alone could almost make this an open-and-shut case, but the exegetical and theological cases are compelling, too.
Both Peter and Jude almost certainly mention this event and interpret these sons of God as angels.
For Christ also suffered once for sins, the righteous for the unrighteous, to bring you to God. He was put to death in the body but made alive in the Spirit. 19 After being made alive, he went and made proclamation to the imprisoned spirits—20 to those who were disobedient long ago when God waited patiently in the days of Noah while the ark was being built. In it only a few people, eight in all, were saved through water, 21 and this water symbolizes baptism that now saves you also—not the removal of dirt from the body but the pledge of a clear conscience toward God. It saves you by the resurrection of Jesus Christ, 22 who has gone into heaven and is at God’s right hand—with angels, authorities and powers in submission to him.
1 Peter 3:18–22
For if God did not spare angels when they sinned, but sent them to hell, putting them in chains of darkness to be held for judgment; 5 if he did not spare the ancient world when he brought the flood on its ungodly people, but protected Noah, a preacher of righteousness, and seven others; 6 if he condemned the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah by burning them to ashes, and made them an example of what is going to happen to the ungodly; 7 and if he rescued Lot, a righteous man, who was distressed by the depraved conduct of the lawless 8 (for that righteous man, living among them day after day, was tormented in his righteous soul by the lawless deeds he saw and heard)—9 if this is so, then the Lord knows how to rescue the godly from trials and to hold the unrighteous for punishment on the day of judgment. 10 This is especially true of those who follow the corrupt desire of the flesh and despise authority. Bold and arrogant, they are not afraid to heap abuse on celestial beings;
2 Peter 2:4–10
Though you already know all this, I want to remind you that the Lord at one time delivered his people out of Egypt, but later destroyed those who did not believe. 6 And the angels who did not keep their positions of authority but abandoned their proper dwelling—these he has kept in darkness, bound with everlasting chains for judgment on the great Day. 7 In a similar way, Sodom and Gomorrah and the surrounding towns gave themselves up to sexual immorality and perversion. They serve as an example of those who suffer the punishment of eternal fire.
Jude 5–7
The connection between (a) these angels who fell, (b) the days of Noah, and (c) the sexual perversion of Sodom and Gomorrah, and (d) the imprisonment of these angelic sinners all but seals the deal that Peter and Jude understood that Genesis 6 was a cohabitation of rebellious heavenly sons and earthly daughters.
A myriad of extra-canonical evidence removes any remaining doubt that this was the universally held interpretation until the 4th century AD.
Like the original rebellion in the garden, this, too, was almost certainly not a one-time event but rather a repeated rebellion. We know this for at least two reasons: (1) the Hebrew grammar used conveys repeated rather than one-time action (Gen 6:4: יָבֹ֜אוּ; ὡς ἂν εἰσεπορεύοντο and וְיָלְד֖וּ; ἐγεννῶσαν) and (2) the Nephilim, the giant divine–human offspring of this abominable union, were alive after the flood (Gen 6:4; 14:5; Num 13:32–33; Deut 2:10–11, 20–21; 3:11, 13; Josh 11:21–22; 2 Sam 21:15–22; 1 Chr 20:4–8).
5.3. Genesis 10–11 and Curiosity
A third pattern of divine–human rebellion happened at Babel, when mankind seems to have sought illicit engagement with the heavenly realm by building a ziggurat, an ancient religious structure designed to bridge the gap between earth and heaven, man and gods—on man’s terms, not Yahweh’s.
The human race likely knew about past encounters with heavenly beings, and their unbridled curiosity and desire to experience the supernatural led them to seek to bring the gods back down. Yahweh responded by disinheriting them, dividing them into separate nations, giving them different languages, scattering them across the earth, and giving them exactly what they wanted—gods to rule over them.
Now the whole world had one language and a common speech. 2 As people moved eastward, they found a plain in Shinar and settled there. 3 They said to each other, “Come, let’s make bricks and bake them thoroughly.” They used brick instead of stone, and tar for mortar. 4 Then they said, “Come, let us build ourselves a city, with a tower that reaches to the heavens, so that we may make a name for ourselves; otherwise we will be scattered over the face of the whole earth.” 5 But the Lord came down to see the city and the tower the people were building. 6 The Lord said, “If as one people speaking the same language they have begun to do this, then nothing they plan to do will be impossible for them. 7 Come, let us go down and confuse their language so they will not understand each other.” 8 So the Lord scattered them from there over all the earth, and they stopped building the city. 9 That is why it was called Babel—because there the Lord confused the language of the whole world. From there the Lord scattered them over the face of the whole earth.
Genesis 11:1–9
This story recorded in Genesis 11 is the commentary on the origin of the table of nations in Genesis 10.
This is the account of Shem, Ham and Japheth, Noah’s sons, who themselves had sons after the flood. 2 The sons of Japheth: Gomer, Magog, Madai, Javan, Tubal, Meshek and Tiras. 3 The sons of Gomer: Ashkenaz, Riphath and Togarmah. 4 The sons of Javan: Elishah, Tarshish, the Kittites and the Rodanites. 5 (From these the maritime peoples spread out into their territories by their clans within their nations, each with its own language.) 6 The sons of Ham: Cush, Egypt, Put and Canaan. 7 The sons of Cush: Seba, Havilah, Sabtah, Raamah and Sabteka. The sons of Raamah: Sheba and Dedan. 8 Cush was the father of Nimrod, who became a mighty warrior on the earth. 9 He was a mighty hunter before the Lord; that is why it is said, “Like Nimrod, a mighty hunter before the Lord.” 10 The first centers of his kingdom were Babylon, Uruk, Akkad and Kalneh, in Shinar. 11 From that land he went to Assyria, where he built Nineveh, Rehoboth Ir, Calah 12 and Resen, which is between Nineveh and Calah—which is the great city. 13 Egypt was the father of the Ludites, Anamites, Lehabites, Naphtuhites, 14 Pathrusites, Kasluhites (from whom the Philistines came) and Caphtorites. 15 Canaan was the father of Sidon his firstborn, and of the Hittites, 16 Jebusites, Amorites, Girgashites, 17 Hivites, Arkites, Sinites, 18 Arvadites, Zemarites and Hamathites. Later the Canaanite clans scattered 19 and the borders of Canaan reached from Sidon toward Gerar as far as Gaza, and then toward Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah and Zeboyim, as far as Lasha. 20 These are the sons of Ham by their clans and languages, in their territories and nations. 21 Sons were also born to Shem, whose older brother was Japheth; Shem was the ancestor of all the sons of Eber. 22 The sons of Shem: Elam, Ashur, Arphaxad, Lud and Aram. 23 The sons of Aram: Uz, Hul, Gether and Meshek. 24 Arphaxad was the father of Shelah, and Shelah the father of Eber. 25 Two sons were born to Eber: One was named Peleg, because in his time the earth was divided; his brother was named Joktan. 26 Joktan was the father of Almodad, Sheleph, Hazarmaveth, Jerah, 27 Hadoram, Uzal, Diklah, 28 Obal, Abimael, Sheba, 29 Ophir, Havilah and Jobab. All these were sons of Joktan. 30 The region where they lived stretched from Mesha toward Sephar, in the eastern hill country. 31 These are the sons of Shem by their clans and languages, in their territories and nations. 32 These are the clans of Noah’s sons, according to their lines of descent, within their nations. From these the nations spread out over the earth after the flood.
Genesis 10:1–32
As we’ve already seen, Deuteronomy 32:8–9 further explains what happened on this fateful day.
When the Most High gave the nations their inheritance, when he divided all mankind, he set up boundaries for the peoples according to the number of the sons of God [DSS; LXX]. 9 For the Lord’s portion is his people, Jacob his allotted inheritance.
Deuteronomy 32:8–9
6. Yahweh brings judgment on these wicked heavenly rulers.
Each of these rebellions evokes Yahweh’s just judgment on both his heavenly and earthly sons—both as immediate judgment and promised final judgment.
6.1. Yahweh’s judgment on the serpent, Eve, and Adam
The Lord pronounces his judgment on the serpent, Eve, and Adam after their joint rebellion against him.
So the Lord God said to the serpent, “Because you have done this, “Cursed are you above all livestock and all wild animals! You will crawl on your belly and you will eat dust all the days of your life. 15 And I will put enmity between you and the woman, and between your offspring and hers; he will crush your head, and you will strike his heel.” 16 To the woman he said, “I will make your pains in childbearing very severe; with painful labor you will give birth to children. Your desire will be for your husband, and he will rule over you.” 17 To Adam he said, “Because you listened to your wife and ate fruit from the tree about which I commanded you, ‘You must not eat from it,’ “Cursed is the ground because of you; through painful toil you will eat food from it all the days of your life. 18 It will produce thorns and thistles for you, and you will eat the plants of the field. 19 By the sweat of your brow you will eat your food until you return to the ground, since from it you were taken; for dust you are and to dust you will return. . . . 23 So the Lord God banished him from the Garden of Eden to work the ground from which he had been taken. 24 After he drove the man out, he placed on the east side of the Garden of Eden cherubim and a flaming sword flashing back and forth to guard the way to the tree of life.”
Genesis 3:14–19, 23–24
Genesis 3:15 is echoed in Romans 16:20: “The God of peace will soon crush Satan under your feet. The grace of our Lord Jesus be with you.” Both will find their ultimate fulfillment in Christ’s second coming and Satan’s final judgment (Rev 20:10).
6.2. Yahweh’s judgment on the sons of God, the daughters of men, and their offspring
Yahweh responded to this second rebellion with the binding of the angels who fell, the flood, and the conquest of Canaan.
6.2.1. Judgment on the sons of God
The New Testament gives us a view into the judgment on the fallen sons of God.
For if God did not spare angels when they sinned, but sent them to hell [ταρταρώσας], putting them in chains of darkness to be held for judgment; 5 if he did not spare the ancient world when he brought the flood on its ungodly people, but protected Noah, a preacher of righteousness, and seven others; 6 if he condemned the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah by burning them to ashes, and made them an example of what is going to happen to the ungodly;
2 Peter 2:4–6
And the angels who did not keep their positions of authority but abandoned their proper dwelling—these he has kept in darkness, bound with everlasting chains for judgment on the great Day. 7 In a similar way, Sodom and Gomorrah and the surrounding towns gave themselves up to sexual immorality and perversion. They serve as an example of those who suffer the punishment of eternal fire.
Jude 6–7
The picture is clear:
- “sent them to hell” [tartarus] // “has kept in darkness”
- “putting them in chains of darkness” // “bound with everlasting chains”
- “to be held for judgment” // “for judgment on the great Day”
Peter confirms this picture by mentioning the spirits imprisoned in the days of Noah.
For Christ also suffered once for sins, the righteous for the unrighteous, to bring you to God. He was put to death in the body but made alive in the Spirit. 19 After being made alive, he went and made proclamation to the imprisoned spirits—20 to those who were disobedient long ago when God waited patiently in the days of Noah while the ark was being built. In it only a few people, eight in all, were saved through water,
1 Peter 3:18–20
6.2.2. Judgment on mankind and the Nephilim
Immediately on the heels of Genesis 6:1–4, we have the account of the flood.
The Lord saw how great the wickedness of the human race had become on the earth, and that every inclination of the thoughts of the human heart was only evil all the time. 6 The Lord regretted that he had made human beings on the earth, and his heart was deeply troubled. 7 So the Lord said, “I will wipe from the face of the earth the human race I have created—and with them the animals, the birds and the creatures that move along the ground—for I regret that I have made them.” 8 But Noah found favor in the eyes of the Lord.
Genesis 6:5–8
But this wasn’t Yahweh’s only judgment, since the Nephilim were alive on the earth after the flood, too (Gen 6:4; 14:5; Num 13:32–33; Deut 2:10–11, 20–21; 3:11, 13; Josh 11:21–22; 2 Sam 21:15–22; 1 Chr 20:4–8), implying a repeat of this rebellion by other sons of God. As a result, the Lord commanded the conquest of Canaan and the eradication of these evil giants, which started with Abraham and was finally completed in King David’s day (Gen 14:5–7; Num 13:22, 28, 32–33; 21:21–32, 33–35; Deut 2:10–12, 20–23; 3:1–11, 6; 9:2; Josh 10:36–37, 38–39; 11:21–22; 12:4; 13:3, 12; 14:6–15; 15:8, 13–14; 17:15; 18:16; Judg 1:10, 20; 1 Sam 17:4; 2 Sam 21:15–22; 1 Chr 20:4–8; Amos 2:9–10).
6.3. Yahweh’s judgment on the nations and their gods
Finally, Scripture records Yahweh’s judgment on the wicked heavenly rulers of the nations most fully in Psalm 82. This is the same reality that was at play in the Exodus narrative when Yahweh promised to “bring judgment on all the gods of Egypt” (Exod 12:12; cf. 15:11; Num 33:4).
God presides in the great assembly; he renders judgment among the “gods”: 2 “How long will you defend the unjust and show partiality to the wicked? 3 Defend the weak and the fatherless; uphold the cause of the poor and the oppressed. 4 Rescue the weak and the needy; deliver them from the hand of the wicked. 5 “The ‘gods’ know nothing, they understand nothing. They walk about in darkness; all the foundations of the earth are shaken. 6 “I said, ‘You are “gods”; you are all sons of the Most High.’ 7 But you will die like mere mortals; you will fall like every other ruler.” 8 Rise up, O God, judge the earth, for all the nations are your inheritance.
Psalm 82:1–8
That these were heavenly beings is clear not just from their repeated designations as gods and sons of the Most High but also from their punishment: they will die like humans. If they were human, dying like humans would be tautological. The final verse connects Babel and Deuteronomy 32:8–9 to Acts 2 and Pentecost—Yahweh’s reclaiming of the nations for his Regal Son (Psalm 2:8).
Numerous other passages speak of Yahweh’s judgment on these wicked gods of the nations.
A prophecy against Egypt: See, the Lord rides on a swift cloud and is coming to Egypt. The idols [אֱלִילֵ֤י; τὰ χειροποίητα] of Egypt tremble before him, and the hearts of the Egyptians melt with fear. 2 “I will stir up Egyptian against Egyptian—brother will fight against brother, neighbor against neighbor, city against city, kingdom against kingdom. 3 The Egyptians will lose heart, and I will bring their plans to nothing; they will consult the idols [הָֽאֱלִילִים֙; τοὺς θεοὺς αὐτῶν] and the spirits of the dead [הָ֣אִטִּ֔ים], the mediums [הָאֹב֖וֹת] and the spiritists [הַיִּדְּעֹנִֽים; ἐγγαστριμύθους]. 4 I will hand the Egyptians over to the power of a cruel master, and a fierce king will rule over them,” declares the Lord, the Lord Almighty.
Isaiah 19:1–4
The Lord will punish the powers in the heavens above and the kings on the earth below. They will be herded together like prisoners bound in a dungeon; they will be shut up in prison and be punished after many days. The moon will be dismayed, the sun ashamed; for the Lord Almighty will reign on Mount Zion and in Jerusalem, and before its elders—with great glory.
Isaiah 24:21–23
The Lord is angry with all nations; his wrath is on all their armies [צְבָאָ֑ם]. He will totally destroy them, he will give them over to slaughter. Their slain will be thrown out, their dead bodies will stink; the mountains will be soaked with their blood. All the stars [צְבָ֣א] in the sky will be dissolved and the heavens rolled up like a scroll; all the starry host [צְבָאָ֣ם] will fall like withered leaves from the vine, like shriveled figs from the fig tree.
Isaiah 34:1–4
“Present your case,” says the Lord. “Set forth your arguments,” says Jacob’s King. 22 “Tell us, you idols, what is going to happen. Tell us what the former things were, so that we may consider them and know their final outcome. Or declare to us the things to come, 23 tell us what the future holds, so we may know that you are gods. Do something, whether good or bad, so that we will be dismayed and filled with fear. 24 But you are less than nothing and your works are utterly worthless; whoever chooses you is detestable.
Isaiah 41:21–24
These gods, who did not make the heavens and the earth, will perish from the earth and from under the heavens.
Jeremiah 10:11
The Lord Almighty, the God of Israel, says: “I am about to bring punishment on Amon god of Thebes, on Pharaoh, on Egypt and her gods and her kings, and on those who rely on Pharaoh.
Jeremiah 46:25
I will punish Bel in Babylon and make him spew out what he has swallowed. The nations will no longer stream to him. And the wall of Babylon will fall. 45 “Come out of her, my people! Run for your lives! Run from the fierce anger of the Lord. 46 Do not lose heart or be afraid when rumors are heard in the land; one rumor comes this year, another the next, rumors of violence in the land and of ruler against ruler. 47 For the time will surely come when I will punish the idols of Babylon; her whole land will be disgraced and her slain will all lie fallen within her.
Jeremiah 51:44–47
The Lord will be awesome to them when he destroys all the gods of the earth. Distant nations will bow down to him, all of them in their own lands.
Zephaniah 2:11
This promised judgment on the gods of the nations is the backdrop to the New Testament.
7. Jesus came to bring Yahweh’s judgment on the spiritual forces of darkness and to claim his rightful place as heir of the throne.
In the pages of the New Testament, we find a worldview saturated with the spiritual forces of darkness—not as some new reality that came out of the blue during the intertestamental period but as the continuation of the drama that had been unfolding for millennia since the garden, the flood, and Babel.
Jesus entered into the world for a myriad of reasons, but one was “for judgment” (John 9:39), not “to judge the world” itself (John 12:47) but rather to judge its chief ruler (John 12:31; 16:11)—“to destroy the devil’s work” (1 John 3:8), “break the power of him who holds the power of death—that is, the devil—and free those who all their lives were held in slavery by their fear of death” (Heb 2:14–15).
Satan, the ruler of this world (John 12:31; 14:30; 16:11; Eph 2:2; cf. 2 Cor 4:4; 1 John 5:19), had authority over the nations (Luke 4:6) and power over death (Heb 2:14) and held the world in slavery as a diabolical tyrant (Acts 26:18; 2 Cor 4:3–4; Eph 2:1–3; Col 1:13; 2 Tim 2:25–26; Titus 3:3; 1 John 3:8–10; 5:19). Satan, as the “prince of demons” (Matt 12:24–27; Mark 3:22–26; Luke 11:15–19), has authority over “his angels” (Matt 25:41; Rev 12:7), the gods of the nations—the thrones, powers, rulers, and authorities (Col 1:16; Eph 1:21; Eph 3:10; Eph 6:12; Rom 8:38; and 1 Pet 3:22) that believers still battle in this period between D-Day and V-E Day. His demise is also theirs.
Jesus came to fulfill the ancient promise of Genesis 3:15 to crush the head of the serpent (cf. Rom 16:20)—to bind the strong man (Matt 12:29; Mark 3:27; Luke 11:21–22; cf. Rev 20:1–3) and disarm his servants (2 Cor 11:15), bringing them into subjection (Col 2:15; 1 Pet 3:22) and receiving all authority in heaven and on earth (Matt 28:18; Eph 1:20–22; Phil 2:9–11; Col 2:10).
The gospel is a story about a myriad of things, but one of its most important dimensions is the regime change that was brought about by the death, resurrection, ascension, and session of Jesus. Satan has been dethroned (Luke 10:18; John 12:31); Christ reigns as King (Dan 2:44; Dan 7:13–14; Zech 14:9; Rev 11:15; 12:10). Christ’s kingdom of light is advancing (Col 1:12); the kingdom of darkness is being overtaken (Col 1:13). V-E Day is coming.
8. The Spirit’s arrival at Pentecost marked the reversal of Babel and Yahweh’s reclamation of the nations.
All the way back in Genesis 10–11, Yahweh cast off the nations and gave them what they wanted—taking Israel as his inheritance (Deut 32:8–9). But that was never his final plan for humanity.
The Father made this promise to his Son:
Ask me, and I will make the nations your inheritance, the ends of the earth your possession.
Psalm 2:8
He asked, and he came to claim it.
Rise up, O God, judge the earth, for all the nations are your inheritance.
Psalm 82:8
Acts 2 records Pentecost, the Feast of Weeks or the Feast of Ingathering (Exod 34:22) that happened 50 days after Passover every year (Lev 23:16). But this Pentecost was special; it marked the reversal of Babel—the regathering of the scattered nations.
When the day of Pentecost came, they were all together in one place. 2 Suddenly a sound like the blowing of a violent wind came from heaven and filled the whole house where they were sitting. 3 They saw what seemed to be tongues of fire that separated and came to rest on each of them. 4 All of them were filled with the Holy Spirit and began to speak in other tongues as the Spirit enabled them. 5 Now there were staying in Jerusalem God-fearing Jews from every nation under heaven. 6 When they heard this sound, a crowd came together in bewilderment [συνεχύθη; cf. συγχέωμεν and συνέχεεν in Gen 11:7, 9], because each one heard their own language being spoken. 7 Utterly amazed, they asked: “Aren’t all these who are speaking Galileans? 8 Then how is it that each of us hears them in our native language? 9 Parthians, Medes and Elamites; residents of Mesopotamia, Judea and Cappadocia, Pontus and Asia, 10 Phrygia and Pamphylia, Egypt and the parts of Libya near Cyrene; visitors from Rome 11 (both Jews and converts to Judaism); Cretans and Arabs—we hear them declaring the wonders of God in our own tongues!” 12 Amazed and perplexed, they asked one another, “What does this mean?”
Acts 2:1–12
Yahweh confused the languages of the people, dividing them into nations, and scattering them across the earth at Babel. At Pentecost their confusion turned into amazement, as the scattered nations were gathered to hear the good news of the promised arrival of the last days and the pouring out of the Spirit on all the nations.
There’s one more piece to this puzzle which makes God’s plan even more profound. What was the occasion that brought the nations to Jerusalem? Why would they gather for a Jewish feast? Israel was supposed to be separate from the nations and be a light to them (Isa 2:2–3; 42:6; 49:6; 60:1–3; Mic 4:1–2; Zech 8:23; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47). But they failed. Rather than influencing the nations for good, they became like the nations and abandoned their God. But Israel’s spiritual adultery was no obstacle for Yahweh. He scattered his people into the nations (Lev 26:33; Deut 4:27; 28:64; Neh 1:8; Ps 44:11; Jer 30:11; Ezek 12:15; 20:23; 22:15; 36:19; Zech 7:14; cf. James 1:1; 1 Pet 1:1), always keeping a remnant who were faithful to him (1 Kings 19:18; Ezra 9:8; Isa 10:20–22; 37:31–32; Jer 23:3; Micah 5:7–8; Zeph 3:12–13; Rom 9:27; 11:1–5). It was through the unfaithfulness of Israel that Yahweh reversed Babel at Pentecost, as God-fearing Jews from every nation under heaven gathered to receive the good news of the gospel and take it back to all the nations. Israel would be a light to the nations as promised.
As Peter explained, the promise of Joel 2:32 was being fulfilled:
Then Peter stood up with the Eleven, raised his voice and addressed the crowd: “Fellow Jews and all of you who live in Jerusalem, let me explain this to you; listen carefully to what I say. 15 These people are not drunk, as you suppose. It’s only nine in the morning! 16 No, this is what was spoken by the prophet Joel: 17 “ ‘In the last days, God says, I will pour out my Spirit on all people. Your sons and daughters will prophesy, your young men will see visions, your old men will dream dreams. 18 Even on my servants, both men and women, I will pour out my Spirit in those days, and they will prophesy. 19 I will show wonders in the heavens above and signs on the earth below, blood and fire and billows of smoke. 20 The sun will be turned to darkness and the moon to blood before the coming of the great and glorious day of the Lord. 21 And everyone who calls on the name of the Lord will be saved.’
Acts 2:14–21
“And afterward, I will pour out my Spirit on all people. Your sons and daughters will prophesy, your old men will dream dreams, your young men will see visions. 29 Even on my servants, both men and women, I will pour out my Spirit in those days. 30 I will show wonders in the heavens and on the earth, blood and fire and billows of smoke. 31 The sun will be turned to darkness and the moon to blood before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the Lord. 32 And everyone who calls on the name of the Lord will be saved; for on Mount Zion and in Jerusalem there will be deliverance, as the Lord has said, even among the survivors whom the Lord calls.
Joel 2:28–32
In these last days, God’s saving work is no longer mediated through the Old Covenant and the nation of Israel and its law; Jesus brought about a New Covenant establishing a new people and a new law. This people isn’t known by their circumcision, their Sabbath keeping, and their observance of Jewish feast days. They’re known by their love, by being people full of the Spirit.
This good news message of the last days of the Spirit is being proclaimed among all nations (Matt 24:14; 28:18–20; Mark 13:10; Luke 24:47; John 3:16–17; Acts 1:8; 15:14–17; Rom 15:9–12; Rev 14:6; 15:4; 21:24–26). God now commands all people everywhere to repent (Acts 17:30) as he assembles his people from every tribe, language, people, and nation (Isa 52:10; 66:18–19; Rev 5:9; 7:9; 14:6; cf. 13:7). All the nations will worship King Jesus (Ps 22:27–28; 86:9; Mal 1:11).
Conclusion
I’ll conclude this article with a series of questions for you to consider and ponder whether the DCW offers better answers to these questions than the alternatives.
- Why are we met in the early pages of the New Testament with demons and spiritual warfare with heavenly rulers? What is the origin of this conflict and these authorities?
- Why does the epistle to the Hebrews, with its message about the superiority of the New Covenant to the Old, focus so much on angels and Jesus’ superiority to them in its opening chapters?
- In what sense was the Old Covenant era subjected to angels (cf. Heb 2:5)?
- Why was the Old Covenant law given through angels (Deut 33:2–5; Psa 68:17; Acts 7:37–38, 7:52–53; Gal 3:19–20; Heb 2:1–3), and what was the significance of that mediation compared to the New Covenant and its law?
- Why did God wait until the New Covenant to pursue and save the nations (Acts 17:30)?
- Where did Satan get his authority over the nations of the world (Luke 4:6) and his power over death (Heb 2:14)?
In my experience, most people don’t have good answers to these questions and many more like them. The DCW, which I’ve argued above is deeply rooted in dozens of texts of Scripture and isn’t reliant on ancient Near Eastern literature, provides a coherent answer to all of them that connects the Old and New Testaments in a way that makes them one continuous drama about Yahweh’s plan to unite heaven and earth in Christ (Eph 1:10; Col 1:19–20).
If you’ve written off the DCW for one reason or another, I’d encourage you to open your Bible afresh and reconsider the biblical evidence for it. I believe you’ll find that it’s not some obscure and unimportant distraction but rather one of the most profound and important themes in the story of redemption woven thoroughly into the entire tapestry of Scripture from Genesis to Revelation. If by God’s grace you come to see it, the way you read your Bible and think about the gospel story will never be the same.
