Prepared for New Testament Theology on November 4, 2002.
The New Testament teaching concerning repentance is an important issue in our day that needs fresh attention. Is repentance a necessary condition of salvation and a part of the gospel message that is to be proclaimed to sinners, or is faith alone the sole condition of salvation?1 Many today are claiming that repentance plays no part in initial salvation, and the part that it plays after conversion is certainly not an essential part. But as we will see, a close examination of the Scripture makes quite indisputable the fact that repentance is a necessary condition of salvation, a necessary fruit of salvation, and a vital part in the proclamation of the gospel message to sinners.
The Vocabulary of Repentance
There are three primary words or roots that are used in the NT to convey the idea of repentance. They all basically communicate some kind of changing or turning in the soteriological sense described by the term “repentance,” although each has a unique focus on a certain aspect of that change.2
1. Μετανοέω, μετάνοια:3 The etymology of this root comes from two Greek words: μετά, carrying the idea of change, and νοέω carrying the idea of thinking. Thus the main idea is a change in how one considers something. This is the most important word for the concept of repentance. It does not focus so much on repentance as an emotion (although it certainly is often present), but rather it deals with repentance as a whole with special focus on the change in thinking and purpose that is certain to result in a change of action.4 The verb in the LXX is usually a translation of the word נחם, referring to God changing His mind, or sometimes שׁוב, referring to a more visible change.
2. Μεταμέλομαι, μεταμέλεια, μετάμελος:5 The etymology of these words comes from two Greek words: μετά, carrying the idea of change, and μέλομαι carrying the idea of “having care or concern for something.” The main idea that results is a change in how one feels about something. Thus, these words carry either the emotional idea of “being sorry” or the intellectual idea of “changing one’s mind.” Although the word can be used of either, it is best characterized with the emotional idea. In Matthew 21:29 the son refused to obey his father, but then he felt sorry and decided to go work for him. Another example occurs in 2 Corinthians 7:8 where Paul says that he felt badly that he had caused the Corinthians sorrow. He then says that he no longer was sorry, because of the result that their sorrow had.6 Hebrews 7:21 probably fits better with the cognitive change, which is a quotation of Psalm 110:4 declaring that the Lord “will not change His mind” concerning the Messiah as a priest after the order of Melchizedek. The emotional response is usually the result of a change of thinking about something. And that intellectual realization causes one to reanalyze previous actions and to emotionally respond to them as mistakes.7 In the OT, the verb is nearly always a translation of the Hebrew verb נחם in the Niphal, which means “to regret or be sorry.”
3. Στρέφω, ἐπιστρέφω, ἐπιστροφή, ἀποστρέφω:8 The root στρέφω basically means “to turn,” while the prefixes ἐπί and ἀπό add the idea of turning “back” or “away from.” This word, when used soteriologically, focuses on the turning as a whole, and primarily on the resulting external, visible change of behavior—the intellectual and emotional change being more assumed.9 These words almost always are the translation of the Hebrew verb שׁוב, which means “to turn back” or “to return.”
The Definition of Repentance
Based on a summary of the above words and an analysis of the passages in which they occur, repentance may be theologically defined as follows. Each aspect of repentance involves a change from a former way of thinking, feeling, and doing to a new way of thinking, feeling, and doing.
The twofold turn of repentance
1. Repentance is a turning away from “wicked ways” (Ac. 3:26; cf. Rev. 9:21), “vain things” (Ac. 14:15), “darkness” and “the dominion of Satan” (Ac. 26:18), “worthless elemental things” (Gal. 4:9), “idols” (1 Thes. 1:9; cf. Rev. 9:20), and “dead works” (Hb. 6:1).
2. Repentance is a turning to “the light” (Ac. 26:18), “the Lord” (Ac. 9:35; 11:21; 2 Cor. 3:16), “God” (Ac. 15:19; 20:21; 26:18, 20), “a living God” (Ac. 14:15), “a living and true God” (1 Thes. 1:9), and “the Shepherd and Guardian of . . . souls” (1 Pet. 2:25).
The threefold change of repentance
1. Repentance is a change of thinking about oneself and about God.
2. Repentance is a change of feeling primarily about one’s sin and its offensiveness to God.
3. Repentance is a change of behavior—from a self-centered to a God-centered life.
The Collocative Themes of Repentance
1. Repentance as part of the content of gospel preaching: In Acts 14:15 Paul, preaching “the gospel,” tells men to “turn from . . . vain things to a living God” (cf. Mk. 1:14–15). This call to repentance is part of the invitation to experience the salvation of God. John the Baptist’s preaching was characterized by calls to repent, baptizing men as a demonstration of that repentance (Mt. 3:2, 8, 11; Mk. 1:4; Lk. 3:3, 8; Ac. 13:24). Jesus Himself continued that same message, calling on men to repent (Mt. 4:17; Mk. 1:15; Lk. 13:3, 5). This is part of the very reason that he came (Lk. 5:32). This preaching of repentance was in light of the fact that the kingdom had drawn near (ἤγγικεν; Mt. 3:2; Mk. 1:15; 4:17). This was Jesus’ message to the seven churches of the Revelation as well (2:5; 2:16; 3:3; 3:19). The disciples carried on this same message in their preaching, both in their ministry when Christ sent them out two by two (Mk. 6:12) and in their ministry after Christ’s ascension in fulfillment of His great commission (Lk. 24:47). The preaching of Peter (Ac. 2:38) and Paul (14:15; 17:30; 20:21; 26:20) in Acts gives further testimony that repentance is a part of the gospel to both Jews and Gentiles (15:19; 20:21). In addition, Paul even recounts in his testimony that his mission given to him from Christ was to preach that men “should repent and turn to God” (26:17–20).
2. Repentance as necessary due to human sin: The largest theme associated with repentance is that sin (and God’s holiness) is what makes it necessary. Jesus came not to call the righteous, but sinners to repentance (Lk. 5:32).10 Repentance is a message for sinners (Lk. 24:47; Ac. 2:38; 3:19, 26; 8:22; 17:29–30; 26:20).11 And because there is ultimately no one who is righteous before God apart from God’s salvation, all men are under obligation before God to repent—God commands “all men everywhere to repent” (Ac. 17:30; cf., Lk. 24:47; Ac. 26:20–21).12
3. Repentance resulting in life and forgiveness: Another theme that emphasizes the necessity of repentance is what is promised to those who repent. Acts 11:18 makes this connection between repentance and life (τὴν μετάνοιαν εἰς ζωήν).13 The forgiveness of sins is the most common promise of repentance (Ac. 2:38; 3:19; 8:22).14 That forgiveness follows repentance is consistent with logic—God will not forgive anyone who is not willing to make a break with and turn from his sin. The Spirit is also promised to those who repent (Ac. 2:38).
4. Failure to repent resulting in perishing: That repentance is necessary for salvation is clear from explicit statements of what will happen to those who refuse to turn from their sin—“unless you turn and become like children, you will never enter the kingdom of heaven” (Mt. 18:3). Jesus emphasized this point in connection with the slaughter of the Galileans and the falling of the tower of Siloam by saying, “Unless you repent, you will all . . . perish” (Lk. 13:3, 5). Those who fail to repent will be judged by this same Jesus (Ac. 17:30–31; cf. 2 Pet. 3:9; Jam. 5:19–20; Rev. 2:5; 3:3). Jesus chides those cities who, in spite of tremendous privilege of being able to hear Jesus and see His miracles, refused to repent. For them it would be much worse than for those who had not had so great an opportunity (Mt. 11:20–21; Lk. 10:13; 11:32; cf. Mt. 12:41).
Biblical-Theological Analysis of Repentance
Word Occurrences
There are at least 85 NT references to repentance.
1. By Division: (a) Gospels 35× (Mt. 13×; Mk. 4×; Lk. 17×; Jn. 1×); (b) Acts 20×; (c) Epistles 18× (Ro. 2×; 2 Co. 6×; Gal. 1×; 1 Thes. 1×; 2 Thes. 1×; Heb. 3×; Jam. 2×; 1 Pet. 1×; 2 Pet. 1×); (d) The Revelation 12×
2. By Author: (a) Luke 37×; (b) Matthew 13×; (c) John 13×; (d) Paul 11×; (e) Mark 4×; (f) Author of Hebrews 3×; (g) James 2×; (h) Peter 2×
Analysis of Word Occurrences
1. The Gospels contain the largest amount of material on repentance, which is to be expected given their size and the fact that they are evangelistic in their content. Noteworthy is the fact that John’s Gospel has only one reference, and that in a quotation from the OT dealing with God’s blinding of the Jews so they would not repent. Also worthy of consideration is the number of occurrences in Luke’s Gospel (17×)—clearly a dominant theme for him.
2. Acts continues right on the heels of Luke with the highest number of references to repentance out of all the NT books. This is consistent with the fact that Acts records the spread of the gospel to the nations. Repentance was clearly a part of that message.
3. The Epistles have relatively little to say about repentance. This does not mean that repentance was only for the Jews and was no longer a part of the gospel message as some have suggested. The language of repentance is clearly there, but in a different mode of expression. In addition, the nature of the Epistles is quite different from the Gospels and Acts. The Gospels and Acts record the history of the early church and the spread of the gospel to unbelievers, while the Epistles are letters that were written to Christian people instructing them in the ways of obedience. This is sufficient to account for the diminished emphasis on repentance.15
4. The Revelation has a significant amount to say about repentance as well, much of which is addressed to the seven churches (2:5, 16, 21, 22; 3:3, 19). Many of the churches were living in rebellion and had allowed sin to come in. Thus there was this call to repent or judgment was sure to come. The rest of the occurrences deal with the rebellious who, because of the judgment that was coming upon them, only became more willfully unrepentant (9:20, 21; 16:9, 11).
Special Issues Concerning Repentance
1. Repentance and Baptism: Repentance is closely related to baptism in the preaching of John the Baptist, so much so that his baptism was called the baptism of repentance (βάπτισμα μετανοίας; Lk. 3:3; cf. Mt. 3:11; Mk. 1:4; Ac. 13:24; 19:4). This close connection between baptism and repentance occurs in Peter’s sermon in Acts 2:38 as well. Baptism was the outward testimony of inward repentance. This close relationship between baptism and repentance helps explain the even closer relationship between baptism and forgiveness. There are a few passages in the Gospels and Acts that seem to make forgiveness the result of baptism; however, it is best to see forgiveness connected with repentance—baptism only serving as an external manifestation of one’s repentance (Mk. 16:16; Ac. 2:38; 22:16).
2. The Relationship between repentance and faith: There are a number of passages where repentance and faith are parallel commands or are used in another corresponding fashion. For example, Mk. 1:15 records the command to “repent and believe in the gospel.” This was the same thing that John the Baptist preached when he baptized people with the baptism of repentance telling them to “believe in Him who was coming after Him” (Ac. 19:4). Paul declared this same “repentance toward God and faith in [the] Lord Jesus Christ” (Ac. 20:21).16 One interesting note in connection with repentance and faith is that faith seems to always follow repentance in the listed order.17 While this should not be taken too far, it is quite apparent that one cannot turn to Christ in faith until he has begun to change how he regards his sin and his needy condition (although the decisive turning and believing likely occur simultaneously).
3. Repentance as a gracious gift of God: The Scriptures often present repentance as a gracious gift of God (Ac. 3:26; 5:31; 11:18; 2 Tim. 2:25; cf. Rm. 2:4; 11:26), which accords with the biblical presentation of faith as well—both of which seem to be graciously granted through the regenerating work of the Spirit.18 And since this repentance is ultimately a free gift of God’s grace, He is not under obligation to give it to anyone. That accounts for the language of potentiality in Acts 8:22 where Simon is told to “repent . . . and pray the Lord that, if possible, the intention of [his] heart may be forgiven.”19 This same thing is addressed in 2 Timothy 2:25 where Christians are instructed to be kind and gently correct those in error “if perhaps God may grant them repentance leading to the knowledge of the truth.” It is ultimately God’s free decision to grant repentance to those whom He desires.
4. God’s desire for repentance: A favorite verse among many non-Calvinists is 2 Peter 3:9. Actually, only one part of the verse is quoted—“[God is] not willing that any should perish, but that all should come to repentance.” The rest of the verse suggests that God’s desire is for His Church to come to repentance. The reason that God delays His coming is for the benefit of His Church—He is longsuffering toward them, giving them time to repent.
Conclusion
Repentance is a vital part of the message of the NT and an essential part of the gospel. All faithful gospel preaching will contain this teaching of repentance (whether explicitly or implicitly), calling people to turn from sin and self-righteousness unto God, holiness, and faith in Christ.
The Various Nuances of Repentance
Sources: BDAG; BibleWorks 5.0; Cairns’s Dictionary of Theological Terms; Easton’s Bible Dictionary; ETD; Guthrie’s NTT; HALOT; ISBE; Vine’s; Zuck & Bock’s BT of NT.
Notes
1. To ask this, in a sense, is to create a false dichotomy, for repentance and faith are in many ways synonymous. ↩
2. See the Venn diagram below for a graphical representation of their areas of primary emphasis and overlap. ↩
3. The verb μετανοέω occurs 34 times in the NT, 19 times in the OT, and an additional 5 times in the apocryphal books. The noun μετάνοια occurs 22 times in the NT, 1 time in the OT, and 6 times in the apocryphal books. ↩
4. Sorry that there are no examples here. As usual, I ran out of space. The margins and font size are already as small as I am allowed to go! ↩
5. The verb μεταμέλομαι occurs 6 times in the NT, 10 times in the OT, and 3 times in the apocryphal books. The noun μετάμελος does not occur in the NT, and only occurs 2 times in the OT and 1 time in the apocryphal books; the noun μεταμέλεια does not occur in the NT either, occurring only once in the OT and once in the apocryphal books. ↩
6. See also Matthew 21:32; and Matthew 27:3. ↩
7. As we will consider later, the order of progression seems to be intellectual, followed by emotional, followed finally by volitional—all of which result in a total change of behavior. A new understanding results in an emotional feeling of regret, which brings forth a determination to change the actions. The intellectual element does not necessitate the others being present, nor does the emotional necessitate the volitional. But the emotional requires the intellectual, and the volitional requires both of the others. ↩
8. The occurrences of these words are more difficult to figure, since a large number of them are non-theological. ↩
9. These words occur quite frequently in non-theological contexts and normally refer to someone turning physically to look at someone, speak to someone, etc. ↩
10. This statement of Jesus does not imply that the Pharisees really were righteous and did not need repentance. The point Jesus was making was that recognition of sinfulness is a necessary precondition for repentance, and since the Pharisees did not regard themselves as sinners, Christ’s call of repentance was not for them (cf. Lk. 15:7). ↩
11. See also Mk. 1:4; Lk. 3:3; 5:32; 15:7, 10; 17:3–4; 2 Cor. 12:21; Rev. 2:21–22; 9:20–21; 16:9, 11. ↩
12. This is not inconsistent with what Jesus said about not calling the righteous to repentance. Certainly the Pharisees could not repent until they saw themselves as the wicked sinners they were, but they still were certainly in need and under obligation to repent whether they recognized it or not. ↩
13. The force of εἰς here is clearly a result idea (cf. 2 Tim. 2:25). ↩
14. Cf. Mk. 1:4; 4:12; Lk. 3:3; 24:47; Ac. 5:31; 26:18. ↩
15. Repentance is still a message for Christians, however. Christians should be continually repenting of their sins. ↩
16. Cf. Mt. 21:32; Ac. 11:21; 26:18; Heb. 6:1. ↩
17. This is true when the word for repentance is μετανοέω. It is also true of μεταμέλομαι, where the Jews did not “feel remorse to believe” (Mt. 21:32; τοῦ πιστεῦσαι is either result, purpose, or possibly just a simple connective idea, although I prefer the result idea). Where faith does follow repentance is ἐπιστρέφω (Ac. 11:21). It is also worth noting that where μετανοέω and a form of στρέφω occur together, μετανοέω is always first (Ac. 3:19; 26:20). Consistent with this is that the turning of ἐπιστρέφω is preceded by a spiritual and intellectual awakening and illumination (Mt. 13:15; Mk. 4:12; Jn. 12:40; Ac. 26:18; Ac. 28:27). A tentative order might then be suggested: μετανοέω followed by μεταμέλομαι, then πιστεύω followed by ἐπιστρέφω (all preceded by ἀναγεννάω). ↩
18. I quickly admit that there is no explicit statement that connects regeneration and repentance in a cause-effect relationship, but there are numerous biblical arguments for such a conclusion, in addition to the fact that it offers a suggestion as to how God actually gives repentance. This also removes the oft hurled criticism that repentance cannot be a condition of salvation or salvation is by works. It is indeed something the sinner must do, but it is something that God graciously grants, and therefore is not a work that earns his salvation. ↩
19. It is not that Simon might truly repent and God refuse to forgive him, but that Simon might not be able to repent and therefore be unforgivable. Hebrews 6:6 makes the point that a true apostate cannot repent of his apostasy, and therefore cannot find forgiveness. God is the sovereign dispenser of repenting grace. ↩