Prepared for Old Testament Theology on February 3, 2003.
The Hebrew noun שְׁאוֹל occurs 65 times in the OT. The AV translators gave it three different renderings: “grave” (31×), “hell” (31×), and “pit” (3×). The most common verb used with it is יָרַד (over 20×; Job 7:9), which suggests that it is a place located below the earth’s surface. And often it has a he locative (Ezek. 31:16). It is used in synonymous parallelism most frequently with מָוֶת (14×; 2 Sam. 22:6; Ps. 6:6), but also with בּוֹר (6×; Ps. 30:3), אֲבַדּוֹן (3×; Job 26:6), שַׁחַת (2×; Ps. 16:10), and עָפָר (Job 17:16). It is also used in antithetical parallelism with שָׁמַיִם (Ps. 139:8). It is associated with the words “darkness” (Job 17:13) and “worms” (Job 17:14; Is. 14:11). Another common description is that it is never satisfied (Prov. 27:20; Hab. 2:5). The LXX rendered שְׁאוֹל as ᾅδης (61×), θάνατος (2×), and βόθρος (1×), and once it is untranslated (Job 24:19), where the text of the LXX differs considerably from the MT.
There are multiple opinions on the meaning of שְׁאוֹל, but an analysis of the pertinent passages seems to suggest 2 or 3 different, yet overlapping senses. The first is the most general and abstract, referring broadly to something as deep. The second refers to a place where the bodies of dead people go (i.e., the grave). The third sense, by extension, refers to the state denoting the absence of life (i.e., death). The first is infrequent, and the latter two are not entirely distinct, yet normally one predominates. Examples of the first sense occur in contrasting parallelism with שָׁמַיִם, where it is described as גָּבֹהַּ and שְׁאוֹל is described as עָמֹק (Job 11:8; cf. Ps. 139:8; Am. 9:2). That these passages refer to a place is clear from the locative terminology. But understanding them as “grave” does not seem to do justice to the parallelism with heaven. The majority of the references seem to fall in the second category, which refers to the place where dead bodies go. This place is located in the earth, since men are said to go down to שְׁאוֹל. It is a place where both the righteous (Jacob; Gen. 37:35; 42:38) and the wicked (Korah; Num. 16:30; cf. Job 24:19) go. It is the bodies of men that go to שְׁאוֹל. Jacob was going to go there with his “gray hair” (Gen. 42:38). Korah, Dathan, and Abiram were swallowed by the earth and went down into שְׁאוֹל (Num. 16:30–33). Psalm 9:17 is an important text for this second sense, because those who go to שְׁאוֹל are said to שׁוּב there. This is reminiscent of God’s words to Adam: “For you are dust, and to dust you shall return” (Gen. 3:19; cf. Job 17:16). The third possible sense is the state of death. By extension the place where dead people go came to stand for death itself. This sense is hard to distinguish from the previous because of the close relationship. Nearly every passage where “death” will work, “grave” will also yield a sensible meaning. The phrase יַד־שְׁאוֹל (lit. “hand of she’ol”; Ps. 49:15; 89:48; Hos. 13:14) seems to refer to the power that death has (not a physical location), which Jesus conquers by his resurrection, thus guaranteeing the bodily resurrection of all of His own.
A proper understanding of שְׁאוֹל sheds light on a few significant OT texts. In Psalm 16:10 David says, “Thou wilt not leave my soul in hell.” The NT applies this statement to Christ (Acts 2:27–32; 13:35–37), and specifically to His resurrection. It is best understood that God did not leave His body in the grave, and He did not allow His flesh to see corruption (note the synonymous parallelism). Another passage of potential misunderstanding is Proverbs 23:13–14, where parents are commanded to discipline their children so that they will “deliver his soul from hell.” It is better, however, to see this as a reference to untimely death. A well-disciplined child will more likely be spared the physical consequences of blatant sinfulness. Another passage of confusion is Jonah 2:2, where Jonah calls out to the Lord from “the belly of hell.” This is not a reference to anything other than the physical stomach of the sea creature, which Jonah knew would soon be his grave unless God intervened. The LXX of Hosea 13:14 is also noteworthy in light of its NT occurrence in 1 Cor. 15:55, where ᾅδη, which translated שְׁאוֹל, becomes θάνατε, thus supporting the third sense above.
Sources: BDB, KBH, HALOT, TWOT, TLOT.