Prepared for Advanced New Testament Theology on September 10, 2004.
Introduction
Sin is one of the most dominant and pervasive themes of the Bible. The various forms of the English word sin occur 266 times in the NT. Yet this is just a small percentage of the occurrences of the concept. Numerous synonyms cover nearly every one of its pages. An exhaustive analysis of every word related to sin would be a major undertaking. An attempt will be made to cover the most significant roots, organize them semantically, and suggest the practical relevance of knowing their different nuances of meaning.
Statistical Analysis
The most common root for the concept of sin in the NT is ἁμαρτ-. The basic meaning is “to miss the mark.” The root occurs 267 times in four different words: ἁμαρτία (173), ἁμαρτωλός (47), ἁμαρτάνω (43), and ἁμάρτημα (4).1 The highest number of occurrences of the root appears in Romans (60), followed by Luke (33), Hebrews (29), 1 John (27), and John (25). The highest percentage of the root per number of words is 1 John, followed by Romans, Hebrews, and James. The root πονηρ- is also very significant. It carries the idea of “evil” or “wicked.” It occurs 85 times in two different words: πονηρός (78) and πονηρία (7).2 This root occurs most often in Matthew (27), followed by Luke (14), Acts (9), and 1 John (6). Another important root is ἀδικ-. Its basic meaning is “a lack of what is right.” This root occurs 69 times in five different words: ἀδικέω (28), ἀδικία (25), ἄδικος (12), ἀδίκημα (3), and ἀδίκως (1). The highest number of occurrences is found in Revelation (12), followed by Acts (10), Luke (9), and Romans (8). Another principal root for sin is κακ-, the basic meaning of which is “that which fails to meet the standard.” It occurs 68 times in four different words: κακός (52), κακία (11), κακοποιέω (4), and κακοποιός (3). The highest number of occurrences is in Romans (16), followed by 1 Peter (11), which is quite significant. Another important root for sin is πλαν-. The main idea is “going astray as a result of deceit.” It occurs 55 times in four different words: πλανάω (39), πλάνη (10), πλάνος (5), and πλανήτης (1).3 It occurs most frequently in Matthew (10) and Revelation (8).
In addition to these words, there are a number of others that are significant, although not as frequent. One such root is ἀπειθ-. The core idea is “disobedience resulting from a refusal to believe.” It occurs 27 times in three different words: ἀπειθέω (14), ἀπείθεια (7), and ἀπειθής (6). The root occurs most often in Romans (8), followed by Hebrews (4), 1 Peter (4), and Acts (3). Another root for sin is ἀγνο-. Its basic meaning is “unintentional wrongdoing.” It occurs 27 times in three different words: ἀγνοέω (22), ἄγνοια (4), and ἀγνόημα (1). It occurs most often in Romans (6), followed by Acts (4), 1 Corinthians (4), and 2 Corinthians (3). ἀνομ- is also an important root, which conveys the idea of “breaking the law.” It occurs 26 times in three different words: ἀνομία (15), ἄνομος (9), and ἀνόμως (2).4 The highest number of occurrences of the root appears in Romans (5), followed by Matthew (4), 1 Corinthians (4), and 2 Thessalonians (3). Another important root is παραπτ-. Its basic meaning is “abandonment.” It occurs 20 times in two words: παράπτωμα (19) and παραπίπτω (1).5 Most occurrences are in Romans (9), followed by Ephesians (3), Matthew (2), and Colossians (2). Another important root is ἀσεβ-, which essentially conveys “irreverence for God.” This root occurs 16 times in three different words: ἀσεβής (9), ἀσέβεια (6), and ἀσεβέω (1). The highest number of occurrences of the root appears in Jude (5), followed by Romans (4) and 2 Peter (3). The root παραβα- (or ὑπερβα-) is also significant. The former conveys a “turning away from the right path,” while the latter designates a “going beyond the bounds.” It occurs 16 times in four different words: παράβασις (7), παραβάτης (5), παραβαίνω (3), and ὑπερβαίνω (1). It occurs five times in Romans and twice in Matthew, Acts, Galatians, Hebrews, and James. ἀποστα- is also worth noting. It conveys the idea of “rebellion.” It occurs 16 times in two words: ἀφίστημι (14) and ἀποστασία (2). This root was a favorite of Luke’s, occurring seven times in Acts and four times in his gospel. Another important root for sin is παρακο-. It denotes a “failure to listen and obey.” It occurs 6 times in two different words: παρακοή (3) and παρακούω (3).6
Semantic Organization
One thing that stands out quite plainly from the above data is that sin is largely the absence or opposite of the character of God. The alpha privative essentially negates those characteristics and practices of godliness. It is difficult to neatly categorize these roots, but three major categories seem to appear: (1) those stressing the unintentional nature of sin, that is, sins of negligence, (2) those stressing the willful nature of sin, that is, sins of rebellion, and (3) those that may be either done intentionally or unintentionally.
(1) The first semantic category represents the terms that emphasize the unintentional commission of sin. Sin may be committed in ignorance (ἀγνο-). Sin also is the result of being deceived (πλαν-). Finally, sin happens as a result of inattention (παρακο-). All of these lack the willful character of rebellion. (2) The second semantic category represents the terms that emphasize the willful, rebellious nature of sin. Sin is often a refusal to obey (ἀπειθ- and ἀποστα-). In addition, sin is an abandonment of a prior belief or practice (παραπτ-). Finally, sin is a deviation from a known path (παραβα- or ὑπερβα-). (3) The third semantic category represents the terms that may be either from rebellion or negligence. Sin is an irreverence and disregard for God and His standards (ἀσεβ-, ἀνομ-, and ἀδικ-). Sin is also transgression of a single command of God (παραβα-). Sin is a failure to hit the mark or meet the standard (ἁμαρτ- and κακ-). Finally, sin is that which is wrong (πονηρ-).
Practical Implications
Since sin is one of the most pervasive themes in Scripture, and since sin is the heart of the anthropocentric reason for the entirety of Christ’s work, a proper understanding of its meanings and the vastness and comprehensiveness of its scope not only will enable the believer to fight the remnants of sin still existing within, but it will also produce in him a greater rejoicing in the all-sufficiency of the work of his Savior. Where sin increased, grace super-abounded!
Sources: Blocher (NDBT), Danker (BDAG), Erickson (ST), Grundmann (TDNT), Guthrie (NTT), Metzger (Lexical Aids).
Notes
1. Another cognate, ἁμάρτησις, exists, but it does not occur in the NT. ↩
2. Two other words, πονηρῶς and πονηρεύομαι, exist. The latter occurs in the LXX 36 times. ↩
3. Another word, πλάνης, occurs as a variant reading in Jude 13. ↩
4. Two other forms occur, ἀνομέω (34) and ἀνόμημα (15), but only in the LXX. ↩
5. Another form, παράπτωσις, occurs only once in the LXX. ↩
6. The total number of occurrences for these forty-one terms comes to 698. The book with the most is Romans (125), followed by Matthew (68), Luke (67), Hebrews (50), Acts (49), 1 John (41), John (34), 1 Peter (28), Mark (27), Revelation (26), and James (20). Out of these, the most significant books per number of words are 1 John, Romans, Jude, 1 Peter, 2 Peter, Titus, and James. The densest section in the NT is Romans 5–7, containing a total of 60 occurrences of words for sin in only 69 verses. ↩